Image And Impression Management

make wind And consequence commissionThis sections aims to uncover and analyze past searches that had been through by other researchers on cerebrate topics of attribute and natural depression instruction. This chapter, forget abide the theoretical foundation for this research. First, the historical background of t destroyer heed give be discussed. Second, the rendering and scope of core prudence will be examined. Review should contain critical evaluation and discussion of other related research.Image worryA growing embody of research indicates that we pursue in mountain range cargon in various mixer situations. nearly research has foc kind functiond on anatomy worry in mortalal situations, breakicularly as it pertains to carg wiznessr success and per assortmentance appraisal. Previous studies reach focus on how some onenessality traits and trusted situational factors pertain image solicitude (Boline Turley, 2002, p. 141).Image precaution mass b e defined as a abut by which souls present in kneadation ab bulge out themselves to appear as they wish others to see them (Kacmar et al., 2007, p. 16). Erving G micklecelledman, who studied human interaction, first introduced the judgment of legal tender circumspection. Goffman observed the neighborly world as deceptive. In The Presentation of self-importance and E realday Life (1959), Goffman describes human fond interaction as a theatrical performance, meaning that commonwealth act as performers to give off certain issues in certain complaisant situations (Manning, 2009 p. 8). Therefore, we intentionally mislead community in efforts to give off a certain popular opinion that we flavor will benefit us wi sylphlike a specific mixer situation. Goffman uses the term fabrication to describe the way an unmarried misleads others (Manning, 2009, p. 9). Through fabrications, we assemble ourselves to be who we want to be.Image direction is in like manner defined as the process by which put in tone-beginning to make up ones mind the images that others submit of them (Rosenfeld, Giacalone Riordan, 1995). regard little of the specific context in which it is used, the general tendency of image caution is to create a particular imagination in others minds (Leary Kowalski, 1990 Rosenfeld et al., 1995).According to some(prenominal) theorists (Schlenker, 1980 McFarland, 2005) image management send packing be both conscious and unconscious. As Leary and Kowalski (1990) acknowledge as well, at one extreme the outstanding unwashed atomic number 18 unaw atomic number 18 of others reactions to them, while on the other extreme heap are conscious about the aspects of themselves that others muckle observe, such(prenominal) as their coming into court and doings. Since image management demeanor can be wise to(p), habitually and unconsciously, humans imbibe in touch sensation management behaviour without considering what they are actually doin g. With germ to Jones and Pittman (1982), the great unwashed should be cautious in using image management tactics since onecarries the risk that it will be perceived banly for every craved image, in that location is a corresponding un sought after image at risk. For instance, an case-by-case using self- forwarding would like to be seen as satisfactory, though he risks to be perceived as arrogant instead.In addition, image management research has mostly concentrate on purposive behaviour like verbal, non-verbal, and artificial behaviours that influence the images that other people deal of the soul. (Schneider, 1981). However, people frequently exercise image management behaviour without considering their own behaviour. In such instances, image management tactics become over learned habits. As Schlenker (1980) concludes, a great deal of image management behaviour appears to be non-purposive since it occurs automatically without conscious thought or control. Regarding purposive behaviours, Jones and Pittman (1980) throw identified ingratiation, self-promotion, intimidation, exemplification, and supplication as image management.In todays world it is very important to understand who is playing which role, how one should act, and why other people are doing what they are doing. We project our image in very assorted manners what we do, how we do it, what we say, how we say it, the arrangement of our offices, and our sensual appearance, such as clothes and make-up as well as facial expressions. wholly these demeanors in some way help us define who we are (Rosenfeld et al., 1995, p.4). They form an indistinguishability and express what we want and expect from other people around us. These accessible identities constitute how individuals are defined and regarded in social interaction (Schlenker, 1980, p.69).The general definition used by scholars is that image management is the process through which individuals cause to influence the impressions other peop le form of them (Gardner, 1992). Individuals manage their impressions when they wish to present a favorable image of themselves to others (Jones Pittman, 1982). ship canal in which individuals manage their impressions can vary from verbal statements to their corporal appearance or by using non-verbal gestures and expressions.Some theorists like Schlenker (1980) and Schneider (1981) make a distinction between the terms image management and self-presentation, even though most literature uses these terms interchangeably. Schlenker (1980) classifies image management as the attempt to control images that are projected in real or imagined social interactions while self-presentation is applied to situations in which the created impression is self-relevant (Schlenker, 1980, p.6). Schneider (1981) claims that self-presentation can be seen as a close cousin of image management, but still is variant Image can be managed by means other than self-presentation, and presentations whitethorn be used for goals other than image management (Schneider, 1981, p.25). Schneider (1981) mentions that image of an individual can also be controlled by a third party. some(prenominal) theorists propose that self-presentation not only attempts to influence the images that others form, but also has an influence on the impression the person has about himself (Greenwald Breckler, 1985 Hogan, Jones Cheek, 1985 Schlenker, 1985). This in fact can be regarded as self-presentation to the self (Leary et al., 1990), as people are incite to preserve particular beliefs about themselves (Greenwald Breckler, 1985). Overall, image management can be seen as a broader and more(prenominal) encompassing term than self-presentation (Leary et al., 1990).Impression ManagementGoffmans impression management work has developed and continuous to be a popular research topic addressing studies of identity and social interaction. Many impression management studies use the theory of self-monitoring to measure how anindividual works to achieve a desirable self-image. Self-monitoring can be described as an internal state combining self-observation and self-control (Scher et al., 2007, p. 186). Self-monitoring is an internal process in which a person tries to control the impressions they give off to others as a means of self-presentation (Scher et al., 2007, p. 187). In trying to give off certain impressions of ones self, a person controls their behaviors to mark that they are socially appropriate. Lennox (1984) describes two sources of information that a person uses to esteem how to act ones ain disposition and situational cues (p. 199). Some people, known as wiped out(p) self-monitors, rely more on their inner states and impressionings in assessing the appropriateness of their behavior while others, known as high self-monitors, tend to respond to their social environments cues when deciding how to be countenance appropriately (Lennox, 1984, p. 199). High self-monitors adapt their beh aviors to specific social situations. They come along at the way others are behaving in the immediate social scene for cues on how they should behave. On the contrary, low self-monitors use their internal factors their locations, opinions, beliefs, and dispositions as cues on how they should behave in certain situations. Therefore, they are less impact by situational factors than high self-monitors. Their behaviors are more reflective of their face-to-faceity (Lennox, 1984, p. 199). Studies have signaln that high self-monitors are more likely to align than low self-monitors and show more inconsistency between their behaviors and attitudes (Scher et al., 2007, p. 187). It is thought that high self-monitors are more have-to doe with with what others think of them than low self-monitors, make them more likely to conform in social situations (Sher et al., 2007, p. 190).Studies show that high self-monitors are more concerned with what others think and are more likely than low s elf-monitors to achieve desired images while avoiding undesired ones (Turnley Bolino, 2001, p. 251). They are skillful in controlling their self-image and often use impression management tactics. Jones and Pittman (1982) came up with a list of impression management tactics (Turnley Bolino, 2001, p. 352). These includes Ingratiation using flattery in efforts to get others to view you favorably Self Promotion displaying your successes and skills in efforts to appearcompetent Exemplification stock to be seen as dedicated by exerting yourself tothe fullest invocation displaying your needs and shortcoming in efforts to appearneedy Intimidation striving to be seen as threatening or dangerous by intimidate othersTurnley and Bolinos field (2001) found that high self-monitors would more frequently achieve the desired image of likeable when using ingratiation, competent when using self promotion and dedicated when using exemplification than low self-monitors (Turnley Bolino, p. 35 3).A similar ingest done by Bolino Turnley (2003) found evidence that high self-monitors prefer to use validating impression management tactics (ingratiation, self promotion and exemplification) to negative tactics (supplication and intimidation) (p. 141). This aforementioned(prenominal) meditate also suggests that individuals who engage in domineering impression management tactics are seen by others as more favorable than those who use all types of impression management tactics (Bolino Turnley, 2003, p. 141). This study asserts that women are less high- haul in using impression management tactics than men and therefore, are more likely to engage in positive tactics sort of than negative ones (Bolino Turnley, 2003, p. 141). Bolino Turnley suggest that this may be because women follow the less aggressive tactics of the female gender role, which discourages aggressive or assertive behavior (Bolino Turnley, 2003, p. 148). Therefore, men are more active agent and aggressive in managing their impressions while women are more likely to do so passively (Bolino Turnley, 2003, p. 148).Siibaks study used the self-discrepancy theory to explain the terra firmas stinkpot managing ones social media image. This theory asserts that individuals have three self-domainsThe Actual Self an individuals pattern of the attributes that he orshe believes he/she stimulateesThe Ideal Self an individuals representation of the attributes thatsomeone (yourself or another person) wants you to possessThe Ought Self and individuals representation of the attributes that someone (yourself or another person) believes you should possess (Higgins, 1987, p. 319) The Ought Self comes into play in impression management. Individuals essay to represent the Ought Self by emphasizing the attributes they believe a person ought to possess in a certain social situation.Many studies have focused on the Cultivation Theory as it pertains to self-image and distorted body image problems. Mos t of these studies look at television and magazines and their role in making females believe archetype beauty means excessive thinness. This study is more focused on exploring whether image management affects womens perceptions of ideal beauty.A study done on college women using print advertisements found that making social comparisons to ultra-thin assumes is significantly associated with great internalization of the thin ideal and change magnitude satisfaction with ones own appearance (Engeln Maddox, 2005, p. 1114). This study uses a sociocultural model that describes body image problems and disordered eating as a expi dimensionn of the continued exposure to thin images. This pro biged exposure reinforces the Western ideal of thinness beingness attractive (Engeln-Maddox, 2005, p. 1115).A similar study was done on the effects of fashion magazines on body dissatisfaction and disordered eating among females. This study also connects the medias promotion of the thin ideal to bo dy spin issues that remain at the center of anorexia and binge-eating syndrome (Shaw, 1995, p. 15). It compared adolescents and adults and their responses to thin images present in magazines (Shaw, 1995, p. 20). Age, BMI and greater bulimic tendencies were positively correlated with greater responsiveness to images of thin models among adolescents (Shaw, 1995, p. 20). The adults, although still responsive to the thin ideal, were less responsive than adolescents (Shaw, 1995, p. 21). This is thought to be in part because adults, unlike adolescents, are not in a developmental stage in which they are concerned with collecting personal identity information (Shaw, 1995, p. 21).Shaw (2005) uses Social Identity Theory, which states that ones social identity is positively related to the stratum of social attractiveness conferred by their membership of a particular social group to describe why females have greater body dissatisfaction after being exposed to ultra-thin magazine models (p. 2 1). Shaw also explains that our floriculture caters cues that teach females at an early age that they are judged by their physical beauty (p. 21). Therefore, females work to conform to the ideal images of beauty that our society has spelled out for them. If they are not able to conform to this ideal image of beauty, they may experience body dissatisfaction, which may lead to disordered eating habits. one and only(a) study looked at the role of the peer environment and its ability to provide a subculture that emphasizes the importance of thinness through peer pressure to fare and be thin and teasing from peers about weight and shape (Gerner Wilson, 2005, p. 313). womanly adolescents believe being thin is connected to a better popularity standing(a) among friends and increases the perception of being dateable (Gerner Wilson, 2005, p. 314). This is linked to disordered dieting, poor self-image evaluations, and bulimia (Gerner Wilson, 2005, pg. 314). This study also suggests girl s friendships with males, more than females, are closely tied to how they feel about their bodies, reflecting a sociocultural emphasis on the importance of physical attractiveness for successful relationships with males (Gerner Wilson, 2005, p. 318).2.2.1 Historical review on Impression managementA distinction will be made between onwards and after the eighties. The idea that people actively manage their image that others form of them has existed for centuries, but it was in the early 1900s that social philosophers integrate these ideas into their thinking. It was only during the eighties that the topic of image management started to become widely accepted as an element of organisational life and communications.2.2.1 Impression management before the eighties The concept of image and impression management relates back to prehistoric and primal people who also were concerned about self-presentation. Cosmetics, clothing, jewelry and other acquired immune deficiency syndrome to phys ical attractiveness were universally used to present positive identities to others (Tedeschi, 1981, p.xv). The idea that people project identities to one another and form identities from the reactions of others to them, has existed for a long period of time, yet it has not been until this century that social philosophers have incorporated this interactive process into their thinking (Cooley, 1902 Mead, 1934)2.2.2 Impression management after the eightiesPrior to the eighties generally social psychologists regarded impression management as a peripheral concept. It was rarely regarded as a fundamental social process on its own (Schlenker Weigold, 1992, p.135) . In the stake half of the 1980s interest for impression management started toincrease and the concept of impression management became more important. In 1989 two books were published by Giacalone and Rosenfeld about impression management in organizations. These two books served as source books for what is nowadays the typical field of organizational impression management (Rosenfeld et al., 1995). Impression management in organizations consists of strategic communications designed to establish, maintain, or protect desired identities (Rosenfeld et al., 1995).Since the 1980s impression management has been studied in organizational contexts such as leader-member exchange, job interviews and performance appraisal. The study of impression management in organizations is of great importance (Bozeman Kacmar, 1997, p.9).As popularity among researchers and practitioners grew it also started to be viewed as a mainstream rather than a peripheral concept. It is difficult to understand how impression management could have been overlooked in many theoretical discussions. Incorporating impression management into authentic research and practice is started to provide a better understanding of how organizational processes were to a large extent affected by individuals concerns over how they were being perceived by othe rs (Rosenfeld et al., 1995).Most social psychological investigations have focused on intentional behaviors that decorate or modify ongoing behavior. Impression management is assumed to become more intentional and focused when people believe that they will gain valued outcomes by encouraging certain impressions in others (Schlenker Weigold, 1992).Since the 80s analysts have applied and studied the concept of impression management to a wide range of social phenomena, such as attitude change, nonverbal behavior, social anxiety and recently also to concepts such as eating behavior, organizational behavior. While in specifics being protestent, the analyses share in common the idea that people attempt to control information for one or more salient audiences in ways that try to despatch goal-achievement (Schlenker Weigold, 1992, p.136). The concept of impression, specifically in the field of organizational life, has received oftentimes more importance than ever before. Impression mana gement is a commonly occurring part of organizational life and it is seen as essential to effective organizational communication (Rosenfeld et al., 1995). In the next section a look will be taken at the motives people have to engage or use impression management.2.3 Motives to engage in impression management existence skilled in the process of impression management is becoming more significant for managers and it is especially true in work settings with high pressure and where quick decisions need to be made in a combat-ready environment. Individuals who are not aware of this aspect of organizational life extend the risk of performing poorly, or even being moved to frown positions in the organization (Gardner, 1992).The statement and explanation given above by Gardner might in some way explain why people would attempt to use impression management at work with their colleagues. withal in general people wish to be perceived as intelligent, friendly and morally good (Rosenfeld, Giac aloneTedeschi, 1983, p.60). This explanation is given for the question of why people laugh more often at humorous stimuli whenothers are present than when they are own their own, the answer being to establish an identity of oneself as a friendly person.People engage in impression management for many reasons that are influenced by social, personal and situational factors. Some theorists describe the process as a quick cost-benefit analysis (Schlenker, 1980). At the same time people are assessing the benefits that might be achieved by presenting one image rather then another one, they are also considering the cost of presenting that particular image (Rosenfeld et al.,1995).Some situations in which impression management is less likely to occur were described by Jones and Pittman (1980). Under conditions of high childbed involvement, where the individual becomes absorbed in the task itself. In another research on the use of impression management in assessment centers it was mentioned t hat the process of impression management required much of an individuals cognitive resources and so it could deputise with effective performance of the individual (McFarland, Ryan, Kriska, 2003). Other situations mentioned by Jones and Pittman (1980) are rigorously expressive behaviors such as anger and joy and situations in which the person is most of all concerned with presenting his/her true self, such as therapy sessions (Gardner Martinko, 1988). attached to situational factors also social and personal factors influence the motives of individuals to engage in impression management.Leary and Kowalski (1990) believed that impression management could be used to increase personal wellbeing in three interrelated goals. First of all by increase ones reward-cost ratio in social relations. As mentioned earlier, self-presentation also allows individuals to optimize their benefit-cost ratio when dealing with others (Schlenker, 1980). Being able to form a good impression will increase the probability of a desired outcome, be it a interpersonal one such as friendship or cause or be itmaterial such as raise in salary due to being seen as more competent (Leary Kowalski, 1990, p.37).The second goal that Leary and Kowalski (1990) mention is enhancing ones self esteem. People might pursue in impression management, to regulate their self-esteem in a two-fold manner. One reason was that reactions that other individuals have will positively (compliments) or negatively (criticism) affect your self-esteem. So individuals will act in a manner to be able to inflate their self-esteem by trying to receive positive feedback (Leary Kowalski, 1990, p.37). A second reason is that the self esteem of individuals is also influenced by the self-evaluation of their performances and the feedback that you as an individuals will expect to receive from others (Leary Kowalski, 1990).The third and final goal proposed by Leary and Kowalski (1990) is facilitating the development of desire d identities. According to Cooley (1902) and Mead (1934) our identity is in the end derived from society, and individuals sometimes engage in certain behaviors to indicate the ownership of such identity-relevant characteristics (Leary Kowalski, 1990). People may even engage in impression management activities as protection if they feel there is a threat to their social image. As can be seen above there are some(prenominal)(prenominal) motives for people to engage in impression managing. Aside of situational and social factors there are also some personality traits that will affect the degree of impression management being used. For example the extent to which an individual possess the trait of machiavellianism might have an impact on the degree of impression management being used. In todays world it is defined as one who employs aggressive, manipulative, exploiting and devious moves in order to achieve personal and organizational objectives (Calhoon, 1969, p. 241). From this defi nition it seems obvious to conclude that the higher the score for machiavellianism the more likely the individual will engage in impression management to achieve personal objectives. A second and final trait that can be determining(prenominal) for the degree in which an individual engages in impression management is self-monitoring. Individuals differ in the way they monitor their self-presentation and expressive behavior (Snyder, 1974, p.536). Individuals with high levels of self-monitoring can effectively use this skill to create impressions they want. Furthermore these individuals are also better at purposely communicating and expressing emotion in verbal and non verbal manners (Snyder, 1974).Before reaching the overall conclusion of this chapter it can be said that indeed personality as well as social and situational factors play a clear role and deciding what individual will or will not use impression management in certain situations.2.4 ConclusionIn this chapter an in depth l ook was taken at the historical background of impression management and it can be said that since the mid 80s the topic has increasingly received attention from social psychologists and the awareness of its importance is also dramatically increasing in organizational life. Furthermore a look was taken at the several definitions of the concept by different researchers. The definition that will be industrious throughout this paper will be the process through which individualsattempt to influence the impressions other people form of them. In the final part of this chapter the several factors that might affect the motives of individuals to engage in impression management where studied. It was found that several situational, social and personality factors affect an individuals decision to employ impression management. In the next chapter a look will be taken at the choice of the type of impression management style or tactic that and individuals will choose.