Debt Sustainability and Fiscal Policy Rescuing the Rescuers

Debt Sustainability and Fiscal Policy Rescuing the Rescuers Introduction The financial crisis experienced in the period between 2007 and 2008 was a great shock and strain to most of the economies. This financial crisis occurred as a result of the various economies possessing a lot of fictitious wealth such as the wealth gained from excessive borrowing from international bodies so as to try and bridge the gap between excessive spending by governments and firms, which result to very high budgets, and the available financial resources for the governments and the firms.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Debt Sustainability and Fiscal Policy: Rescuing the Rescuers specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The great difference between the available financial resources and the high budgets resulted to a large deficit of finances for fitting into the budget, forcing the governments and firms to lump into a state of excessive borrowing, a factor that has left most of them, especially the large c ountries, in great debts (Reinhart Rogoff 2008). The global economy, especially the economy of the UK, was seemingly very stable before the year 2007 as all the financial undertakings of different economies seemingly thrived fairly. This was not really the case since the UK always got into a state where its budget was higher than the available financial resources and there was always a deficit in the amount required in the budget. Since there were a lot of national and international financial institutions willing to help the government out of the crisis it was facing due to the deficits, the government always found itself borrowing for the sake of bridging the gap brought in by the deficits. This continued for a long time and each time, the government made its budget in a manner that gave provision for inclusion of borrowed money for meeting its budget. This forced the government into a state of great debts and inflated budgets as its budget included repayments of the borrowed mone y and its interest rates. This further resulted to a state of increased deficits in the budgets resulting to more borrowing. In the long-run, the nation found itself so enormously tied up in debts in a manner it could not help itself out. In the same way, the government seemed to have a lot of wealth within its possession but when compared to its debt burdens, it actually had very little to be counted as government wealth. This situation continued and reached its climax at the period between 2007 and 2008 (Wolfe 2010). Towards the end of 2008, the state had experienced a lot of financial crisis as a result of the high debt burdens and this had recessive effects on the economy. There was increased budget expenditure yet very few financial resources for the governments, a state that forced the governments into more borrowing and hence a presence of fictitious wealth in their economies since much of the wealth was equivalent to the debt burdens the governments were in.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More This way, the government experienced a gradual effect of the financial crisis since they ended up borrowing too much and not being able to repay the debts resulting into recession which got to its climax towards the end of 2008 when the financial position of most of the economies was the lowest. The recession had very adverse effects on the economies and the societies at large as it resulted to increased prices of goods and services, low unemployment rates as well as high interest rates (Porter 1990). With the financial crisis being experienced then, there was a greater threat of a possible depression occurring in the global economy, an event that could have been disastrous for all the involved economies and for the global economy at large. There was a need for the governments to take action and reverse the effects of the financial crisis hence avoi ding an instance of a depression occurring. In this way, the governments joined hand and got well coordinated in taking action against that event. With proper coordination, the involved governments were able to overcome the effects of the financial crisis and to save the world from a possible disaster that could have had very severe effects on every economy and even every business in the affected areas and in the world at large (Wennekers Thurik 1999). Governments are the problem of a possible new crises Sovereign debt crisis is the constraint experienced by many different countries and organizations that are tied up in heavy debts borrowed for the sake of bridging the gap between the available financial resources for meeting the budget and the actual high amount required to meet the requirements of the budget. In efforts to try and maintain progress for their countries, governments have found themselves so ties up in great debts that further inflated the amount required in the bud gets due to increased interest rates that have to be budgeted for and which end up placing the countries in a vicious cycle of being in debts. Increased debt burden usually forces the governments to be in a state in which it cannot be able to pay the debts and has to rely on international policies to help it out of the debts. This is one of the main problems that have resulted to various instances of financial crisis in most of the countries and even globally in most of the economies (Alesina Ardagna 2008). Recent studies have shown those economic crises encountered in most countries are a result of different reasons ranging from beliefs, culture and social influences. This influences result to negative financial crisis. People are also made to believe that credit or debt is inevitable for any financial growth, so people get a lot of loans which accumulate over the years. These debts have to be paid regardless of the duration of time they will take before they are cleared (Kelly A mburgey 1991).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Debt Sustainability and Fiscal Policy: Rescuing the Rescuers specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More International economic crisis study shows that currencies may even crash or bring about banking crisis and inflation. This affects the prices of goods, trade, exchange rates of currencies, interest rates on goods purchased on credit or on loans And local debt. Investors have now almost relied on credits from foreign currency instead of relying on local or domestic borrowing. This can leads to increased interests on borrowers (Davidsson 1995). War is also another major cause of economic crisis. This is because it causes economic, social instability of a country. People in these regions cannot be able to do business or trade because of insecurity .transport and communication breakdown can also be encountered in war hit regions or countries which can affect the economy of any stat e (Herbert Link 1982). Countries that are reliant on trade, tourism, can be easily be hit by a crisis when external or internal war is experienced in the country .examples of this is during the second world war when countries were badly hit by crisis (Webster 1994). Global financial crisis also show that it has weakened the banking sector in a big way, especially in third world countries .though, still in developed countries, debt is a much bigger problem. The rate or the percentage of GDP is relatively low on developing countries than on developed countries. This reduces the risks on developing countries (Alesina and Ardagna 2008). The Need to Reduce Deficits and Debts and the Issue of Debt Sustainability The government inter-temporal budget constraint is the constraint experienced by a government due to the presence of debts within its economic setup resulting from currently borrower financial support used to meet the deficits within its budget and the debts inherited from past g overnments, especially in form of repayment of the debts. This and the fact that the government always has a lot of spending to do causes that government to always seek for more financial aid so as to meet its requirements and its budget further plunging it into a state of more debts (Alesina Ardagna 2008). Deficit in the budget is the amount of finances that is less that the required amount so as to meet the full budget. It is the difference between the available financial resources, which usually are never enough, and the actual amount required so as to meet the full budget for the government.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More There are different types of deficits, primary deficit, structural deficit and cyclical deficit. Primary deficit is the difference that occurs between the current expenses and the total current revenue from all types of taxes for the government. On the other side, structural deficit are the deficits that remain across the business trade process (Coviello Jones 2004). The only way the country can resolve this problem is by improving the institutional set up. This process may require time and effort but can be solved. If possible, the country should also reduce the amounts of debts from foreign debtors (Sproul 1995). Borrowing can also be made safer by avoiding excessive borrowing. This is a major way that can reduce the risks of debt crisis. Having strategies and concrete plans before borrowing can help to reduce over borrowing which leads to mismanagement of funds and unnecessary budgets. Finances should always be used for projects that will generate income or returns which can be able to pay the interests and make profits making this borrowing reasonable if it can be able to pay the loan (Alvarez and Busenitz 2001). If the country is borrowing from abroad or from international bodies, it should consider whether the projects that they want to fund have higher social return than the interest of the fund. Also, it should consider whether the project will be able to generate the amount of foreign currency able to service the debt considering the time deadline or scheduled contract time. The country can reduce the risks of debt crisis by ensuring regular monitoring of account surpluses. Proper money regulation and balancing or budgets can be of great help in reducing debt crisis in any developing country. A country may opt to cut off international or domestic debt market (Burda Wyplosz 1997). It is the government’s obligation to curb debts and deficit in order to avoid economic crisis in the country. This can also help in stabilizing the economy of a coun try and avoiding risks of excessive borrowing (Covin Slevin 1989). Due to various factors facing the country such as unbalanced demographic characteristics resulting to high unemployment and overdependence on the employed, low incomes, low GDP and high expenditure for individuals and the government, the government has continuously experienced a deficit in its budgets since its revenues are always way below their expenditures and their plans for the fulfillment of their goals and objectives for a financial year in their countries (Verheul et al. 2002). More important to note is that the government has a lot of financial challenges facing it such as high poverty indices and low development and hence is always trying to improve the financial positions of its citizens and the nation and to encourage the course of achievement of development and in this way, it always end up with a greater need to spend more than its revenue and all their financial resources can cover (Murphy Hill 1996) . This way, it ends up with a budget that is way too high compared to its financial capabilities and hence it always end up depending on borrowing from international bodies such as the World Bank, the IMF and the developed countries so as to try bridge the gap between its needs and its capabilities (Porter 1990). The only problem with the over-dependence that has been noted in countries on financial borrowing is that it lenders the borrowers into a continuous state of being in debts as they always owe their lenders more than they can be able to pay at any one given time (Reinhart and Rogoff 2008). Due to this problem of being in a continuous state of debts, there is a need for the government to address the issue of debts and formulate strategies that will ensure that the current debts are reduced as well as establishing ways of reducing the deficits present in the budgets. The reduction of deficits can be achieved through increasing the sources of revenue, reducing expenditure throu gh prioritization and even seeking for other sources of funding such as the private sectors within the nation instead of seeking for external aid which is costly (Wolfe 2010). The reduction of the deficits in the budgets will help reduce the rate of borrowing and in return help curb the instances of debts for the country as well as the problem of debt sustainability (Smallbone Welter 2001). Appropriateness of a Sharp Structural Fiscal Tightening Many governments in the developed and developing countries have been experiencing a great financial crisis due to the overall effects of the global financial crisis and various other global factors. The most affected countries are the developing countries which have been plunged into alarming instances of overwhelming debts that have very serious effects on their financial positions currently and in the future (Saunders 1994). All the countries, on the other side, have been faced with a situation in which they are unable to implement their policies and face a great public outcry as a result (Webster 1994). In these hard situations, many the governments has been left with no choice rather than establishing strategies to try and curb the instances of the financial crisis in the country. This way, the government has formulated and implemented sharp structural fiscal tightening strategies aimed at bringing the economy to a stable position. However, depending on the way these strategies are implemented, they have been found to either have very helpful effects or to result to more problems by encouraging double-dip recession (Madhok 1997). In the instances of proper timing and properly formulating the policies that allow the implementation of the fiscal tightening strategies, the governments have been able to overcome the instances of recession and lift their financial positions and stabilize them (Porter 1990). On the other side, some of the methods used for implementation of the strategies just result to worsening of the situation due to wrong timing and improper implementation of the strategies, a factor that results to further recession in the economy (Wolfe 2010). References Alesina, A. Ardagna, S., 2008. Large changes in fiscal policy. (Online) Available at: www.nber.org . Alvarez, S. Busenitz, L., 2001. The Entrepreneurship of Resource-Based Theory. Journal of Management, 27 (6), pp. 755-775. Burda, M. Wyplosz, C., 1997. Macroeconomics: A European Text. New York: Oxford. Coviello, E. Jones, V., 2004. Methodological issues in international entrepreneurship research. Journal of Business Venturing, 19 (4), pp. 485-508. Covin, J. Slevin, P., 1989. Strategic management of small firms in hostile and benign environments. Strategic Management Journal, 10 (1), pp. 75-87. Davidsson, P., 1995. Culture, structure and regional levels of entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurship and Regional Development, 7 (1), pp. 41-62. Herbert, R. Link, N., 1982. The Entrepreneur. New York: Preager. Kelly, D. Amburgey, T. , 1991. Organizational inertia and momentum, a dynamic model of strategic change. Academy of Management Journal, 14 (5), pp. 591- 612. Madhok, A., 1997. Cost, value and foreign make entry: The Transaction and the firms’ Strategic Management Journal. New York: Willey. Murphy, G. Hill, C., 1996. Measuring performance in entrepreneurship research. Journal of Business Research, 36 (1), pp. 15-23. Porter, M., 1990. The Competitive Advantage of Nations. New York: Free Press. Reinhart, D. Rogoff, S., 2008. This time is Different. (Online) Web. Saunders, J., 1994. The Marketing Initiative. London: Prentice-Hall. Smallbone, D. Welter, F., 2001. The Distinctiveness of Entrepreneurship in Transition Economies. Small Business Economics, 16 (4), pp. 249-62. Sproul, N., 1995. Handbook of Research Methods: A Guide for Practitioners and Students in Social Sciences. 2nd ed. Methuen: Scarecrow. Verheul, I., Wennekers, S., Audretsh, D. Thurik, R., 2002. An Eclectic theory of entrepreneurshi p: Policies, institutions and culture. In: David Audretsch, Roy Thurik, Ingrid Verheul and Sander Wennekers 1997. Entrepreneurship: Determinants and Policy in a European–US Comparison. Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Webster, L., 1994. Lending for microenterprises: A review of the World Bank’s portfolio. Washington, D.C.: FPD Note 23, World Bank. Wennekers, A.R.M. Thurik, A.R., 1999. Linking entrepreneurship and economic growth. Small Business Economics, 13 (1), pp. 27-55. Wolfe, M., 2010. Emergency Budget: Special edition. (Online) Available at:Â  https://www.ft.com/ . Wolfe, M., 2010. Osborne bets tough Fiscal Stance will not stifle growth. (Online) Available at:Â  https://www.ft.com/ .

Definition and Examples of Slang in English

Definition and Examples of Slang in English Slang is an informal nonstandard variety of speech characterized by newly coined and rapidly changing words and phrases. In his book Slang: The Peoples Poetry (OUP, 2009), Michael Adams argues that slang is not merely a lexical phenomenon, a type of word, but a linguistic practice rooted in social needs and behaviors, mostly the complementary needs to fit in and to stand out. The Characteristics of Slang   The most significant characteristic of slang overlaps with a defining characteristic of jargon: slang is a marker of in-group solidarity, and so it is a correlate of human groups with shared experiences, such as being children at a certain school or of a certain age, or being a member of a certain socially definable group, such as hookers, junkies, jazz musicians, or professional criminals. (Keith Allan and Kate Burridge, Forbidden Words. Cambridge University Press, 2006) The Language of Outsiders   Slang serves the outs as a weapon against the ins. To use slang is to deny allegiance to the existing order, either jokingly or in earnest, by refusing even the words which represent conventions and signal status; and those who are paid to preserve the status quo are prompted to repress slang as they are prompted to repress any other symbol of potential revolution. (James Sledd, On Not Teaching English Usage. The English Journal, November 1965)  The downtrodden are the great creators of slang. . . . Slang is . . . a pile of fossilized jokes and puns and ironies, tinselly gems dulled eventually by overmuch handling, but gleaming still when held up to the light. (Anthony Burgess, A Mouthful of Air, 1992) Standing Out and Fitting In   It is not clear to what extent the slang impulse to enliven speech, the impulse to stand out, mingles with the slang impulse toward social intimacy, the impulse to fit in. At times they seem like oil and water, but at others the social and poetic motivations emulsify into one linguistic practice. . . .  All of us, young and old, black and white, urban and suburban have slang, and, with your eyes closed, we can tell black guys chillaxin with their buddies from young soccer moms dishing out about the latest issue of Jane*. We share more slang than separates us, but what separates us tells us and others where we fit in, or perhaps, where we hope to fit in, and where we dont. . . . As a social marker, though, slang works: you know that youre among the old, tired, gray, and hopeless, rather than hip, vivid, playful, and rebellious, if only in spirit, when you hear no slang. Slang is a tell even in its absence. (Michael Adams, Slang: The Peoples Poetry. Oxford University Press, 2009)   Your mother reads and reads and reads, she wants English, as much as she can get her hands on . . .. Id come late Friday afternoon, it used to be that I would go home with a magazine or two and maybe a paper, but she wanted more, more slang, more figures of speech, the bees knees, the cats pajamas, horse of a different color, dog-tired, she wanted to talk like she was born here, like she never came from anywhere else . . .. (Jonathan Safran Foer, Extremely Loud and Incredibly Close. Houghton Mifflin, 2005) Modern Slang in London   I love modern  slang. Its as colorful, clever, and disguised from outsiders as slang ever was and is supposed to be. Take bare, for example, one of a number of slang terms recently banned by a London school. It means a lot of, as in theres bare people here, and is the classic concealing reversal of the accepted meaning that you also find in wicked, bad and cool. Victorian criminals did essentially the same with back slang, reversing words so that boy became yob and so on.  The other banned words are equally interesting. Extra, for example, mischievously stresses the superfluous in its conventional definition, as in reading the whole book is extra, innit? And that much-disapproved innit? is in fact the nest-ce pas? English has needed since the Normans forgot to bring it with them.  And who would not admire rinsed for something worn out or overusedchirpsing for flirting, bennin for doubled-up with laughter, or wi-five for an electronically delivered high-five? My bad, being n ew, sounds more sincere than old, tired, Im sorry (Sos never quite cut it).   Mouse potato for those who spend too much time on PCs is as striking as salmon and aisle salmon for people who will insist on going against the flow in crowds or supermarket aisles. Manstanding is what husbands and partners typically do while their wives or partners are actually getting on with the shopping. Excellent. (Charles Nevin, The Joy of Slang. BBC News, October 25, 2013) Old Slang: Grub, Mob, Knock Off, and Clear as Mud   When we refer . . . to food as grub, it is perhaps hard to realize that the word goes back to Oliver Cromwells time; from early 18th century come mob, and also knock off, to finish; and from early 19th century, the sarcastic use of clear as mud. (Paul Beale, editor of Partridges Concise Dictionary of Slang and Unconventional English. Routledge, 1991) The Life Span of Slang Words   With the exception of cool, which retains its effectiveness after well over half a century, slang wordsgroovy, phat, radical, smokinhave a very brief life span in which they can be used to express sincere enthusiasm. Then they revert to irony or, at best, expressions of a sort of mild sardonic approval. (Ben Yagoda, When You Catch an Adjective, Kill It. Broadway Books, 2007)  The latest slang term for defecation, however, is dropping the kids off at the pool, which offers hope for a new generation of euphemistic suburbanites. (William Safire, Kiduage. The New York Times, 2004) Slanguage   The expression slanguage has been in the English language for well over a hundred years and has an entry in reputable dictionaries like the Macquarie and the Oxford. One of its first written appearances was as early as 1879, and since that time it has been in regular useThe slanguage of a sporting reporter is a fearful and wonderful thing, to give just one early example. The word slang has given rise to quite a number of wonderful blended or compounded words, such as slanguage, and many of them have been in the language a very long time. (Kate Burridge, Gift of the Gob: Morsels of English Language History. HarperCollins Australia, 2011) Can O' Beans on Sloppy Slang   Well, said Can o Beans, a bit hesitantly, imprecise speech is one of the major causes of mental illness in human beings. . . .  Ã‚  The inability to correctly perceive reality is often responsible for humans insane behavior. And every time they substitute an all-purpose, sloppy slang word for the words that would accurately describe an emotion or a situation, it lowers their reality orientations, pushes them farther from shore, out onto the foggy waters of alienation and confusion. . . .  Slang possesses an economy, an immediacy thats attractive, all right, but it devalues experience by standardizing and fuzzing it. It hangs between humanity and the real world like a . . . a veil. Slang just makes people more stupid, thats all, and stupidity eventually makes them crazy. Id hate to ever see that kind of craziness rub off onto objects. (Tom Robbins, Skinny Legs and All. Bantam, 1990) The Lighter Side of American Slang I know only two words of American slang: swell and lousy. I think swell is lousy, but lousy is swell. (J.B. Priestley) * Jane was a magazine designed to appeal to young women. It ceased publication in 2007. Pronunciation: slang

Skip list Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Skip list - Essay Example It was developed by Professor William Pugh who saw a skip list as an alternative to AVL trees, splay trees, and self-adjusting trees. The idea of skip lists was to make a better sorted linked list. It was easier to perform deletion and insertion operations but hard to locate items. This is because a person would only move along the list using an item at a time. Professor William Pugh saw that if it was possible to skip over a number of items each at a time, then the problem of locating items would be solved. He therefore thought of a hierarchy of linked lists where each stacked on top of one another. According to Anastasio, there are three list data structures that use similar skipping strategy as that of the skip list. One of the list data structures allows any node to skip in a traversal manner. The second list data structures allow any 4th node to skip while the other one allows every 8th node to skip. All the three list data structures consist of a header note that do not have si milar number of forward references. Although each node has a reference to the following node, others have additional references to the next nodes on the same list. However, the find operation algorithm used by the three list data structure is similarly used by the real skip lists (Anastasio). Skip list is an interesting data structure for efficient realization of ordered map ADT. Skip list makes it possible for people to make random choices when arranging entries. During the arrangement the update and search time is usually O (log n) on average. n in this case, is the amount of entries fed in the dictionary. It is important to note that, there is no dependence of the time complexity used, on the keys’ probability distribution in the input. Instead, the time complexity depends on the utilization of a random number generator during implementation of insertion operation. This assists a person in deciding where to locate a new entry. However, there is an

Final assessment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Final assessment - Essay Example All knowledge is based on perception. All categories of knowledge are processed knowledge whether conceptual, perceptual or sensory. Knowledge acquired without means of cognition is unprocessed knowledge. All concepts are formed by measurement omission process. This is according to the philosopher Rand in her Introduction to Objectivist Epistemology. Concepts are basically integration of units possessing the same distinguishing characteristics with certain measurements omitted. This is because measurements are an essential part of a process. Animals can be integrated into concepts such as living things. Ethics While in search for a good life, we have to distinguish between what is right or wrong and various rules of morality. Ethics is what enables us to achieve this. It defines the code of values that guide our choices and actions. The choices define the purpose and course of our life. Existence and non-existence pertains to living things only. The existence of inanimate matter is u nconditional while that of life is conditional because it depends on a certain course of action. Only living things face the issue of life and death. A person is free to think or else evade the effort in any issue of life or at any hour. Man’s mind is only the tool of survival because life is given to him and but survival is not. The body is given to him, but its sustenance is not, he is given the mind but not its content. He has to purpose his actions and know the nature before taking any action for him to remain alive. To implement his choice rational ethics guide him on the principle actions to take. If he decides not to live, nature obviously takes its course. He has to adhere to a moral code. According to the Philosophers Douglas Rasmussen and Douglas Den, every man must work for his rational self- interest for achievement of his own happiness as the highest moral purpose of his life. Reality Rand’s philosophy targets three axioms namely existence, consciousness a nd identity. Through reality, we develop a sense of belief. For instance, existence, consciousness, and identity are bases of knowledge and inescapable. Existence is the base of all forms of knowledge. Existence is identity of a specific nature made of certain attributes. Anything with no attributes does not exist. Mind never creates reality but it is a mean of discovering reality. Entities act in a manner caused by the nature of them. Primary observation of causal connections among entities serves as the basis of further knowledge. Freedom Freedom is an ingredient of a good life and very important thing on earth. A German philosopher Immanuel Kant supports this and argues that freedom is a prerequisite for moral responsibility. Many countries as well as individuals have fought for it. The possibility of moral judgments presupposes it. It serves an indispensable practical function. For a reason to act, the freedom has to be assumed. We have to think of our actions as the result of a n uncaused cause for us to accomplish ends and get to know the world better. We must think ourselves as being free. How we choose to act makes the difference in how we act. In making decisions on what to do, the mechanism that works in our nervous system makes no difference to us at all. For instance, if you decide to buy a house, you have to consider options, reflect on your needs and make decisions basing yourself on application of general principles. Deliberative,

Evaluating the Case of The Early Retirement Essay

Evaluating the Case of The Early Retirement - Essay Example †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦11 References†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦12 Appendix A†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..13 Abstract This paper seeks to delve deeper into the trend in the modern economy of high employee early retirement. While it may be very alluring for many to opt for this option, it may not necessarily be the best move for employees to consider. There are many factors that might prove to be very problematic for the early retirees. This paper also explains why majority of companies are offering early retirement op tions, but not for the well and benefit of their employees. Companies are forced to offer this option because of the ever fast changing technological advancements and they constantly need to train individuals, most preferably the younger ones, to take over these aspects. This matter then becomes something like teaching an old dog new tricks. Companies tend to decide to offer termination for their older employees rather than to sustain them and incur higher salary expenses. Technical advancements also tend to make jobs obsolete. Financial stability as well as the emotional and mental consequences must be considered before opting for early retirement. For one cannot enjoy the vast time that is availed by early retirement if one does not have the resources to make it worthwhile. Evaluating the Case of Early Retirement Introduction In the ever tolling rat race of the industrial world, with all the heavy and laborious challenges that man is faced just to earn a living, every man is looki ng forward to their retirement. Who would not want to just lay back, enjoy life, and do the things which were rendered impossible by the busy lives of working and toiling day after day for decades and decades. Sure, everyone wants the easy life, who doesn’t? After all, every man who has sweat blood and broke his back would ultimately need to reward himself and reap the benefits of his labor. Early retirement sounds so ideal, so surreal, and so gratifying. It means that you have achieved and managed to build your keep and have you living well-off for the rest of your life; the ultimate achievement for a good and fruitful career. But early retirement is not like as how fairy tales go. It is not as simple as living happily ever after. Financial stability does not necessary follow with early retirement. Sure, there will be that severance pay and/or whatever the companies will package and offer you as â€Å"gratitude† to your services to them, but once those are depleted co mes the real problem. Pension is a viable option to compensate for the monthly salary which you will not be receiving anymore, but there are also other benefits which cannot be availed for early retirees. In this paper, not only will the advantages and the good life of early retirement will be tackled but also this paper will seek to delve into the cons and the

Breast Cancer Awareness And Assessment Health Essay

Breast Cancer Awareness And Assessment Health Essay Programme evaluation is one of the key skills required of public health professionals. Evaluating healthcare interventions is important in order to allocate resources efficiently, assist decision-making and inform policy[1].It is also important in order for programme managers to monitor progress in achieving set objectives, improving programme activities, justify need for continuity and accountability to project funders. The proposed evaluation would be carried out using the CDC framework of programme evaluation which has six steps[2].This evaluation would be somewhat pluralistic in nature as there would be an interplay of the perspectives of different groups[3].However, the dominant perspective would however be that of the policy makers-a managerial perspective[1].This evaluation would be carried out three years after the start of the programme. It would take a long time to achieve the overall programme aim, hence the need for reliance on short or intermediate indicators (Parry)cited in[4]. An evaluation working team would be set up for the proposed evaluation and a leader would be appointed. In this evaluation, the author would be the lead evaluator and would be responsible forselecting members of the evaluation team, scheduling meetingswith stakeholders, planning, and budgeting funds for the evaluation, addressing data collection needs, reporting evaluation findings, and working with consultants whose services may be required. Prioragreement would be on the reasons for carrying out the evaluation, the primary user of the evaluation findings, funding arrangements, time-line for completion of the evaluation and reporting of its findings. Engaging stakeholders The programme mainly targets postmenopausal women between 48 and 63 years as breast cancer commonly affects this population. However, the 40-47 age group would be included as early presentation occurs commonly in this population. The key stakeholders involved in the programme are the clients, the Federal Government of Nigeria, the Federal Ministry of Health, Oyo State Ministry of Health, the Ministry of Women Affairs, University College Hospital, Ibadan, programme managers, and staff. Professional associations-Nigerian Medical Association (NMA), Association of Radiologists of West Africa and the Medical Women Association ofNigeria (MWAN) -advocate for the implementation of a national breast cancer screening programme and policy which is currently non-existent[5, 6]. Other stakeholders are advocacy groups-the Genevieve Pink Ball Foundation , Breast Cancer Association of Nigeria (BRECAN),Medicines Plus; media groups-Silverbird Entertainment, Inspirational FM, City People, Genevieve mag azine, Globacom Limited-a leading telecommunications firm. The primary users of this proposed evaluation are the policy makers and the programme management.The findings would determine if the programme is worth its ‘value for money and would help inform decision on the whether the programme should be continued and if a screening policy would be implemented. The purpose of the evaluation would be made clear and agreed upon by all key stakeholders from the outset[4]. It would have been possible to develop the logic model for this evaluation using the theory of change approach with the stakeholders. Defining a theory of change which is agreed by all stakeholders can mitigate the effects of causal attribution[4].One representative would be selected from each key stakeholders group to form an evaluation working group. The stakeholders in the team would be asked about their vested interests in the programme, their expectations, and what resources they would put in during the actual implementation of the evaluation. The Ibadan-Ibarapa Breast Cancer Screening Initiative The programme was commissioned in December, 2006 in response to the growing concern for the need for early detection of breast cancer. The programme aims is to reduce incidence and mortality from breast cancer in women. Breast cancer screening is a secondary prevention programme that takes the form of physical examination using in combination with radiographic techniques-mammography. Health needs assessment using the epidemiological approach conducted prior to the implementation of the programme revealed that breast cancer is the most common cause of female cancer deaths in Nigeria. Breast cancer is the most common cancer affecting women globally[7] and in Nigeria [5, 8-11].It accounts for the greatest proportion of cancer deaths in women in Nigeria. Previous surveys showed a rising prevalence in breast cancer in Nigeria from 33.6 per 100,000 in 1992[12] to 116 per 100,000 in 2001[5].A retrospective review of hospital-diagnosed cases of cancer revealed 1,216 cases over a four-year period with breast cancer accounting for 13.9% of the cases[11] .Differences exist between the aggressiveness and survival rates in Nigerian women when compared to other populations[13, 14]. The mean age at presentation is 48 years[5]. The average age at menopause of Nigerian women is 48 years[15, 16]. The intervention targeted at women between 40 and 64 years as early presentation-before menopause-has been observed to be the dominant pattern in this population. There is generally a low level of awareness and knowledge of early detection breast cancer among Nigerian women [8, 10, 17-19].Despite the burden, there is currently no national policy or programme for early breast cancer detection[5, 18]. There is a high mortality from breast cancer in Nigeria. This is because most present for treatment late[18, 20-22] and tumours are more aggressive, responding poorly to medical treatment[23].Cultural factors and religious influences also affect health seeking behaviours with some detected cases seeking healing from lay or traditional practitioners. Risk factors for developing breast cancer include age at menopause, at age at first live birth and parity, history of   first-degree relative with breast cancer[24]and smoking. Research evidence supports that early detection of breast cancer leads to improved outcomes. Surveys investigating the knowledge, attitudes and practice of female health care workers showed that with the exception of physicians, there are gaps in knowledge of the risks of breast cancer and low practice of early detection methods [6, 25]. The activities being carried out in this programme are: Breast cancer seminars and workshops for nurses, physicians, community health workers, public health nurses and health promotion specialists in order to increase their knowledge of breast cancer risks and change their attitudes towards screening practices Clinical Breast Examination (CBE) trainings using breast models -donated by the University of Chicago Medical Centre-in order to enhance clinical skills in breast lump detection. Breast cancer education workshops and lectures for postmenopausal women and teaching skills in Breast Self Examination (BSE) to increase their knowledge of the benefits of early detection of breast cancer and to change their attitudes and beliefs on breast cancer Counselling sessions by breast cancer survivors who are volunteers trained to help motivate women in utilising the screening service and reassurance that the benefit of screening outweighs any discomfort felt during the mammography procedure Distribution of IEC (Information, education and communication) materials breast cancer facts leaflets and posters to increase knowledge of breast cancer risks and the benefits of early detection Media campaigns through paid and unpaid advertisements in newspapers and magazines widely read by women; radio jingles in English and the local dialect; role plays on television by volunteers; health promotion messages on television aired in English and Yoruba languages Provision of free Clinical Breast Examination (CBE) and free mammography screening to postmenopausal women between ages 40 to 63 years Funding is mainly from the Federal Government with equal support from the Breast Cancer Research Foundation and the Genevieve Pink Ball Foundation. Shortage of health care staff and inadequately trained staff contribute to mortality from breast cancer. Cultural and religious beliefs also influence cancer health-seeking behaviours. There is increasing interest in cancer issues and many agencies are getting involved in breast cancer awareness activities. Focusing the evaluation design Evaluation design and perspective taken by an evaluation depends on who the primary user of the evaluation is[1].The proposed evaluation takes the managerial perspective[1]. The primary users of this evaluation are the programme managers and the policy makers (health systems). At this stage of the programme, three years after its implementation, it is inappropriate to make judgement based on the achievement of long-term outcomes. It will thus assess the changes in the knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs of the clients concerning breast cancer and the utilisation of the screening service. Purpose of the evaluation In future, evaluating the programme would determine if the breast cancer awareness programme and screening leads to a reduction in incidence and mortality from breast cancer in women aged 40-63 years .The proposed evaluation would carried out in order for policy makers to decide the effectiveness of the programme in promoting health i.e. to evaluate the effectiveness of breast cancer screening as a public health policy; to make decisions about continuity of the service in light of its cost-effectiveness in the face of other healthcare needs competing for funds and to assist in policy making and implementation [4]of a national breast cancer screening programme. It would also assist the programme manager in judging fidelity of implementing the programme activities. The main evaluation questions to be dealt with can be thus can be summarised as follows: Effectiveness-‘Is the programme working as intended? i.e.is it achieving the objectives it set out in its mandate? Efficiency- ‘Are the programme activities being produced with minimal use of resources? The proposed evaluation would use the Before-After (Type 3) evaluation approach[1] in assessing the effectiveness of the programme in producing the change in knowledge, attitudes and behaviour that would ultimately lead to achievement of the programmes goal of reducing the incidence and mortality from breast cancer. This evaluation needs to be carried out in a relatively short period and funding for the evaluation is limited. While true randomised controlled trials are said to be the gold standard for evaluation[26], they would be unethical; expensive to conduct and take a really long time to complete. The main problem with this before-after design is the issue of causal attribution- that the results may not be conclusive in proving that the outcomes are as a result of the programme activities[1].The opinions and inputs of the key stakeholders would also be taken into account at this stage[27].Stakeholders opinion would be sought on how the evaluation would be funded ,how long it wo uld be carried out for and what the reasonable level of achievement should be. The number of years the programme has been in existence would help set the standard against which progress is monitored. Gathering credible evidence-Data collection The mixture of quantitative and qualitative methods would be used in data collection.Observational methods would be used in collecting some primary data for the evaluation as there are few existing databases from which the relevant information for the evaluation can be obtained. Green and South stress that selecting methods for measuring outcomes of health promotion programmes should be based on concern for â€Å"reliability, validity, suitability for purpose, feasibility, consistency with the values and methods of working of the project and appropriateness for use with various groups†[4].Although validity is recognised as being very important in selecting the indicators for evaluation, practical feasibility should also be put into consideration[4]. McNamara fallacy-‘making the measurable important rather than the important measurable. Change in the knowledge, attitudes and practice of healthcare workers would be assessed using a structured self-administered questionnaire placed in the staff pigeon holes at the teaching hospital where the programme activities are carried out. The questionnaire would be pre-tested prior to its use for the evaluation. Pertinent questions would reflect social and demographic characteristics of the respondents, level of knowledge about breast cancer, risk factors for its development, symptoms, screening methods known as well as their individual practice of breast self examination (BSE) and screening using mammography as appropriate. The questions would be closed and pre-coded responses would be included in the questionnaire as these are quick to analyse[28].Careful attention would be paid to the wording of the questionnaire and how the information is coded during its design in order to ensure its reliability and validity. The healthcare workers would be sampled using the stratified ran dom sampling technique based on age and gender. Responses would be anonymised to reduce the chances of reporting bias. The number of healthcare workers would be determined from the training register kept by the programme monitoring and evaluation staff and it can be estimated from the survey in the absence of fidelity in the recording of programme activities. In order to assess if the healthcare workers have developed the appropriate clinical competence in Clinical Breast Examination (CBE).Participants would be observed carrying out the examinations. A hospital researcher skilled in ethnographic methods would be called upon to engage in this aspect of the evaluation. The limitation of this method of investigation is that observer bias is an issue to contend with and the method is not objective[28].To limit observer bias, a different observer would also assess the trained participants-inter-observer comparison[28].The contribution of the Hawthorne effect-a reactive effect which produces bias- is also a limitation worth noting [28].If healthcare staff are aware that they are being studied, they strive to demonstrate that they have the required level of competence in carrying out the breast examination. Changes in the knowledge, attitudes, and practice of screening in the clients would also follow the before-after method of investigation. Study participants would be randomly selected from the community. Informed consent would be ensured before data collection. Data would be obtained using structured pre-coded questionnaires with allowance for open-ended questions delivered via face-to-face interviews trained interviewers. The interviewers would trained on the social skills of establishing good rapport with people in order to reduce potential bias[28].Information obtained would include socio-demographic variables- age, marital status, level of education, religion, occupation-potential risk factors for developing breast cancer-family history of breast cancer, parity, duration of breast-feeding age at onset of menstruation, age at menopause-knowledge of screening methods-Breast Self Examination(BSE),Clinical Breast Examination(CBE) and mammography and on utilisation of screening servic es[29].Barriers to accessing service can also be explored. Mailed questionnaires would have taken less time and would be cheaper to administer but consideration is given to the fact that most people in this community do not have mailing addresses and the literacy level is generally low. Justifying conclusions Data collected from the surveys would be analysed using appropriate tests with statistical software. The main exposure variables of interest the educational component of the programme and the physician skills training in Clinical Breast Examination(CBE) while the main outcome of interest is the utilisation of mammography as a screening service. Secondary variables of interest are the media campaigns, healthcare workers training, Clinical Breast Examination Other factors that would be explored would be the effect of some key demographic characteristics like age, ethnicity, and level of education on the utilisation of the mammography service. In conducting the analysis, adjustment would be made for potential confounding by other influences. The before-after status of the women receiving the educational programme would be compared. For the uptake of mammography as a screening method comparison before and after status would also be compared as though a few other mammography centres exist, none is currently running a similar awareness programme that may qualify its use as a non-random control. The overall results obtained would be compared with the set standards as outlined in the programme objectives or in the absence of this, what was agreed upon at the stakeholders meeting as a measure of success Ensuring use of the evaluation findings The findings would be put together as a draft after representing the data in well-presented graphs and tables as appropriate and circulate among the stakeholders. After reviewing the draft with the stakeholders, the results would be disseminated widely in the hospital journals, as a government publication, in women magazines and other publications as defined by the stakeholders. The results obtained are expected to help inform the development and implementation of a national breast screening policy and programme. Quality assessment There are a number of frameworks that have been developed for investigating the quality of healthcare services[30]. The Maxwells framework would be used for assessing the quality of the screening service. Maxwells conceptualisation of health care quality is organised around the following six dimensions[31]: Access to services-accessibility in terms of time ,distance and location of services, language and other cultural barriers Relevance to need (for the whole community) Effectiveness (for individual patients) Equity (fairness) Social acceptability(cultural competence) Efficiency and economy. Effectiveness The effectiveness of mammography as a screening method has been proven to be beneficial by some studies. A case-control study reported a 50% reduction in mortality from breast cancer using mammography hence supporting its efficacy[32].A recent case control study also demonstrated similar results[33]. Collette et alevaluated a breast cancer screening programme using different methodologies and found that early detection using mammography reduced mortality in the 50-64 age groups[34]. Though a previous meta-analysis demonstrated no benefit to women in the 40-49 age group[35],the well cited Swedish trials have however suggested the need for screening in this age group. Efficiency and economic evaluation This would answer the evaluation question: ‘are we making the best use of limited resources? The economic evaluation of this programme would take the managerial standpoint to answer the policy makers question on if it is the best ‘value for money. It is important in making resource allocation decisions[4]. The overall summary of the programme can be succinctly stated as: Activities- breast cancer education workshops, lectures, and seminars, Clinical Breast Examinations (CBE) for healthcare workers distribution of information leaflets and posters, media campaigns, mammography. Outputs-Number of educational sessions held, number of healthcare workers trained, no of women reached by educational programme, number of women counselled, number of women screened, and number of IEC materials distributed Outcomes -increased awareness and knowledge of breast cancer risks and screening methods (short-term outcome) -increased awareness of early detection (intermediate outcome) -increase in uptake of breast cancer screening (behaviour change) Goal-reduction in incidence and mortality from breast cancer (long term impact) Accessibility, equity, relevance, and acceptability The issue of accessibility and social acceptability would be addressed in the questionnaire survey of clients after the intervention.Relevance to need was initially addressed in the epidemiological needs assessment prior to programme implementation. In further evaluating the need for the programme with respect to the community, focus group discussions with carefully selected members of the community would be held. Members of women groups who are opinion leaders in the community would be involved in these interviews. This technique enables the evaluator explore in-depth views on how social, cultural, religious, and other barriers that affect the uptake of screening service. However, they are time-consuming; data is difficult to analyse; confidentiality is compromised and interviewer bias is a key issue[28]. References Ovretveit, J., Evaluating health interventions : an introduction to evaluation of health treatments, services, policies and organizational interventions. 1998, Buckingham: Open University Press. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Framework for Program Evaluation in Public Health.   1999   [cited 2010 7 February]; Available from: http://www.cdc.gov/eval/framework.htm. Naidoo, J. and J. Wills, Evaluation in health promotion, in Foundations for health promotion. 2005, Baillià ¨re Tindall Edinburgh. Green, J. and J. South, Key Concepts for Public Health Practice: Evaluation. 2006, Maidenhead: Open University Press. Adesunkanmi, A.R.K., et al., The severity, outcome and challenges of breast cancer in Nigeria. The Breast, 2006. 15(3): p. 399-409. Akhigbe, A. and V. Omuemu, Knowledge, attitudes and practice of breast cancer screening among female health workers in a Nigerian urban city. BMC Cancer, 2009. 9(1): p. 203. Ferlay, J., et al., Global Burden of Breast Cancer. Li C et al. Breast Cancer Epidemiology, Springer Science, 2008. Okobia, M., et al., Knowledge, attitude and practice of Nigerian women towards breast cancer: A cross-sectional study. World journal of surgical oncology, 2006. 4(1): p. 11. Okobia, M.N. and U. Osime, Clinicopathological Study of Carcinoma of the Breast in Benin City. African Journal of Reproductive Health / La Revue Africaine de la SantÃÆ' © Reproductive, 2001. 5(2): p. 56-62. Adebamowo, C.A. and O.O. Ajayi, Breast cancer in Nigeria. West African Journal of Medicine, 2000. 19(3): p. 179-91. Nggada, H.A., et al., Breast Cancer Burden in Maiduguri, North Eastern Nigeria. The Breast Journal, 2008. 14(3): p. 284-286. Ihekwaba, F.N., Breast cancer in Nigerian women. British Journal of Surgery, 1992. 79(8): p. 771-775. Ikpatt, O.F., et al., Breast cancer in Nigeria and Finland: epidemiological, clinical and histological comparison. Anticancer Research, 2002. 22(5): p. 3005-12. Huo, D., et al., Population Differences in Breast Cancer: Survey in Indigenous African Women Reveals Over-Representation of Triple-Negative Breast Cancer. Journal of Clinical Oncology, 2009. 27(27): p. 4515-4521. Okonofua, F.E., A. Lawal, and J.K. Bamgbose, Features of menopause and menopausal age in Nigerian women. International Journal of Gynecology Obstetrics, 1990. 31(4): p. 341-345. OlaOlorun, F. and T. Lawoyin, Age at menopause and factors associated with attainment of menopause in an urban community in Ibadan, Nigeria. Climacteric, 2009. 12(4): p. 352 363. Okobia, M., et al., Knowledge, attitude and practice of Nigerian women towards breast cancer: A cross-sectional study. World journal of surgical oncology, 2006. 4: p. 1 9. Oluwatosin, O.A. and O. Oladepo, Knowledge of breast cancer and its early detection measures among rural women in Akinyele Local Government Area, Ibadan, Nigeria. BMC Cancer, 2006. 6(1): p. 271. Odusanya, O.O., Breast cancer: knowledge, attitudes, and practices of female schoolteachers in Lagos, Nigeria. Breast J, 2001. 7(3): p. 171-5. Ezeome, R.E., Delays in presentation and treatment of breast cancer in Nigeria. J Clin Oncol (Meeting Abstracts), 2009. 27(15S): p. 1527-. Ekanem, V.J. and J.U. Aligbe, Histopathological types of breast cancer in Nigerian women: a 12-year review (1993-2004). African Journal of Reproductive Health, 2006. 10(1): p. 71-5. Ukwenya, A., et al., Delayed treatment of symptomatic breast cancer: The experience from Kaduna, Nigeria. South African Journal of Surgery, 2008. 46(4): p. 106. Gukas, I.D., et al., Clinicopathological features and molecular markers of breast cancer in Jos, Nigeria. West African Journal of Medicine, 2005. 24(3): p. 209-13. Negri, E., et al., Risk factors for breast cancer: pooled results from three Italian case studies. American Journal of Epidemiology, 1988. 128(6): p. 1207-1215. O. Odusanya, O.O.T., Olumuyiwa, Breast Cancer Knowledge, Attitudes and Practice among Nurses in Lagos, Nigeria. Acta Oncologica, 2001. 40(7): p. 844-848. Black, N., Why we need observational studies to evaluate the effectiveness of health care. BMJ, 1996. 312(7040): p. 1215-1218. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Centers for Disease Control and revention. Office of the Director, O.o.S.a.I., Introduction to program evaluation for public health programs: A self-study guide 2005: Atlanta, GA. Bowling, A., Research methods in health:investigating health and health services. 2002, Buckingham: Open University Press Akhigbe, A.O. and V.O. Omuemu, Knowledge, attitudes and practice of breast cancer screening among female health workers in a Nigerian urban city. BMC Cancer, 2009. 9: p. 203. Gray, S., The contribution of health services to public health, in Public Health for the 21st Century:new perpectives on policy,practice and participation, J. Orme, et al., Editors. 2007, Open University Press: Maidenhead. Maxwell, R., Quality assessment in health. British Medical Journal, 1984. 288(6428): p. 1470-1. Walter, S.D., Mammographic screening: case-control studies. Annals of Oncology, 2003. 14(8): p. 1190-1192. Puliti, D., et al., Effectiveness of service screening: a case-control study to assess breast cancer mortality reduction. British Journal of Cancer, 2008. 99(3): p. 423-427. Collette, H.J., et al., Further evidence of benefits of a (non-randomised) breast cancer screening programme: the DOM project. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 1992. 46(4): p. 382-386. Kerlikowske, K., et al., Efficacy of Screening Mammography: A Meta-analysis. JAMA, 1995. 273(2): p. 149-154.

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The Cabinet President Bush’s Cabinet   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Secretary of Agriculture: Ann M. Veneman   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  *Set up to control food regulations as well as farming and food   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   production.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Secretary of Commerce: Don Evans   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  *Set up to control international trade, as well as statewide and f  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   federal spending.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Secretary of Defense: Donald Rumsfeld   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  *Set up to provide funding and tactical information for the US   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   military and its many operations throughout the world. Also   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   used to defend the United States.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Secretary of Education: Rod Paige   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  *Set up to provide administrative guidelines for schools across   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   the country. provides certain types of funding for schools.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Secretary of Energy: Spencer Abraham   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  *Controls the energy grid as well as international energy trading,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   buying, and selling between countries.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Secretary of Health & Human Services: Tommy Thompson   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  *Works in conjunction with the Board of Health to provide   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  affordable health products, as well as testing for safety issues   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  regarding the specified products. Also works with the   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Department of Agriculture to provide safe food.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Department of Homeland Security: Tom Ridge   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  *Controls the ever popular terror alert model. Works to protect   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  the Unites States from acts of terrorism.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Secretary of Housing & Urban Development: Alphonso Jackson   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Set up to ensure that neighborhoods across America will be able   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  to function properly and also meet the building requirements set   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  forth by the Board of Housing and Development.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Secretary of Interior: Gale Norton   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  *Known for working directly with overseers regarding   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  endangered species and public lands legal issues for the   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  National Park Service and the Fish and Wildlife Service.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Department of Justice: John Ashcroft   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  *The main overseer over the Federal Courts of the Unites States. Head of   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   the US Supreme Court.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Secretary of Labor: Elaine Chao   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  *Works to oversee labor laws and their violations. Works with   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   the states to provide proper working permits and regulations for   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   citizens of the United States.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Secretary of State: Colin Powell   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  * Works to create a more secure, democratic, and prosperous   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   world for the benefit of the American people and the   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   international community.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Secretary of Transportation: Norman Mineta   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  *Works to ensure that transportation throughout the United   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   States meets the Federal Regulations and makes sure they are   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   safe from any type of harm.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Secretary of the Treasury: John Snow   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  *In charge of the currency throughout the United States.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Secretary of Veteran’s Affairs: Anthony Principi   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  * In charge of the Veteran's Rights and the funding they receive   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   after they retire from the military.