The History of Schizophrenia

The History of Schizophrenia Schizophrenia is a severe psychiatric disorder with symptoms of emotional instability, detachment from reality, and withdrawal into the self. The word â€Å"Schizophrenia† is less than 100 years old. However the disease was first identified as a discrete mental illness by Dr. Emile Kraepelin in the 1887 and the illness itself is generally believed to have accompanied mankind throughout its history. There are documents that identify Schizophrenia can be traced to the old Pharaonic Egypt, as far back as the second millennium before Christ. Depression, dementia, as well as thought disturbances that are typical in schizophrenia are described in detail in the Book of Hearts. The Heart and the mind seem to have been synonymous in ancient Egypt. The physical illnesses were regarded as symptoms of the heart and the uterus and originating from the blood vessels or from purulence, fecal matter, a poison or demons. Some recent study into the ancient Greek and Roman literature showed that although the general population probably had an awareness of psychotic disorders, there was no condition that would meet the modern diagnostic criteria for schizophrenia in these societies. At one point in history, all people who were considered â€Å"abnormal,† whether due to mental illness, mental retardation, or physical deformities, were largely treated the same. Early theories supposed that mental disorders were caused by evil possession of the body, and the appropriate treatment was then exorcising these demons, through various means, ranging from innocuous treatments, such as exposing the patient to certain types of music, to dangerous and sometimes deadly means, such as releasing the evil spirits by drilling holes in the patient's skull. One of the first to classify the mental disorders into different categories was the German physician, Dr. Emile Kraepelin. He used the term â€Å"dementia praecox† for individuals who had symptoms that we now associate with schizophrenia. The nonspecific concept of madness has been around for many thousands of years and schizophrenia was only classified as a distinct mental disorder by Kraepelin in 1887. He was the first to make a distinction in the psychotic disorders between what he called dementia praecox and manic depression. Kraepelin believed that dementia praecox was primarily a disease of the brain, and particularly a form of dementia. Kraepelin named the disorder ‘dementia praecox' (early dementia) to distinguish it from other forms of dementia (such as Alzheimer's disease) which typically occur late in life. He used this term because his studies focused on young adults with dementia. The Swiss psychiatrist, Eugen Bleuler, coined the term, â€Å"schizophrenia† in 1911. He was also the first to describe the symptoms as â€Å"positive† or â€Å"negative. † Bleuler changed the name to schizophrenia as it was obvious that Krapelin's name was misleading as the illness was not a dementia (it did not always lead to mental deterioration) and could sometimes occur late as well as early in life. The word â€Å"schizophrenia† comes from the Greek roots schizo (split) and phrene (mind) to describe the fragmented thinking of people with the disorder. His term was not meant to convey the idea of split or multiple personality, a common misunderstanding by the public at large. Since Bleuler's time, the definition of schizophrenia has continued to change, as scientists attempt to more accurately delineate the different types of mental diseases. Without knowing the exact causes of these diseases, scientists can only base their classifications on the observation that some symptoms tend to occur together. Both Bleuler and Kraepelin subdivided schizophrenia into categories, based on prominent symptoms and prognoses. Over the years, those working in this field have continued to attempt to classify types of schizophrenia. Five types were delineated in the DSM-III: disorganized, catatonic, paranoid, residual, and undifferentiated. The first three categories were originally proposed by Kraepelin. These classifications, while still employed in DSM-IV, have not shown to be helpful in predicting outcome of the disorder, and the types are not reliably diagnosed. Many researchers are using other systems to classify types of the disorder, based on the preponderance of â€Å"positive† verses â€Å"negative† symptoms, the progression of the disorder in terms of type and severity of symptoms over time, and the co-occurrence of other mental disorders and syndromes. It is hoped that differentiating types of schizophrenia based on clinical symptoms will help to determine different etiologies or causes of the disorder. The evidence that schizophrenia is a biologically-based disease of the brain has accumulated rapidly during the past two decades. Recently this evidence has been also been supported with dynamic brain imaging systems that show very precisely the wave of tissue destruction that takes place in the brain that is suffering from schizophrenia. The 1800's saw a slow progression towards an eventual schizophrenia definition. From the 1800's on, schizophrenia history begins to gain ground as researchers began to understand the nature of the disease: Although the nineteenth century saw great strides towards a schizophrenic definition, â€Å"lunatic asylums† of the time were often little more than human zoos. For a fee, well to do ladies and gentlemen could tour the asylums, viewing the patients. No doubt the psychotic behavior of schizophrenics made them popular â€Å"attractions† during these degrading tours. Schizophrenia in Recent Times The start of the twentieth century saw, for the first time in schizophrenia history, a practical schizophrenia definition and the birth of effective treatments. In 1911 Eugene Beuler first used the term schizophrenia, and his schizophrenia definition includes symptoms such as blunted emotions, disordered thoughts, and loss of awareness. Then in 1957, Kurt Schneider created the schizophrenic definition still in use today, and is the first person in the long history of schizophrenia to list the currently accepted features of schizophrenia. Schizophrenia definitely has a very significant genetic component. Those who have a third degree relative with schizophrenia are twice as likely to develop schizophrenia as those in the general population. Those with a second degree relative have a several-fold higher incidence of schizophrenia than the general population, and first degree relatives have an incidence of schizophrenia an order of magnitude higher than the general populace. The History of Schizophrenia Treatment in the Twentieth Century Schizophrenia history abounds in unusual treatments and bizarre â€Å"cures. † Indeed, the twentieth century stands apart from the rest of schizophrenia history because it saw the first effective schizophrenia treatment: the first antipsychotic drug was created in 1952. The twentieth century also saw some controversial schizophrenia â€Å"cures. † Portuguese doctor, Egus Moniz, developed the lobotomy in the 1930s. Moniz won a Nobel Peace prize for his work in 1949. The lobotomy procedure cut the nerve fibers from the frontal lobe to the interior of the brain, where emotions are generated. Patients were less agitated and aggressive after a lobotomy. Of course, patients were also left indifferent and with blunted emotions, but this didn't squelch the lobotomy's popularity as a schizophrenia treatment. Patients could be released from hospitals after lobotomies, saving both hospitals and family members money. Lobotomy procedures varied. American neurologist John Freeman created perhaps the most bizarre procedure. Freeman traveled America performing lobotomies for the benefit of audiences comprised of journalists and medical professionals: to call him a medical showman isn't stretching the truth much. Freeman's lobotomies were simple, quick, and medically preposterous. With the patient under anesthesia, Freeman placed an ice pick (yes, you read that correctly) into an area just above the eyeball. Using a hammer, he drove the ice pick into the patient's brain to a depth of approximately one inch. Lobotomies fell into disfavor as people noticed patients often died from lobotomy-induced epilepsy or surgical infections. Severe brain damage was also shown in many cases (not that it should have required a study to prove an ice pick to the brain caused extensive damage). Still, between the 1940s and the 1950s over 40,000 Americans were lobotomized. Shock therapy was developed at the same time lobotomies were darkening schizophrenia history. Approaches to shock therapy varied. Some doctors used insulin injections; others preferred Metrazol or electricity. Insulin often left patients in comas. Both Metrazol and electricity caused seizures, and electric shock therapy often caused memory loss. Surprisingly, electroconvulsive therapy is still used to treat some cases of schizophrenia and severe depression. Current techniques are supposed to be much safer, but many medical professionals consider electroconvulsive therapy very dangerous, and something that should only be used as a last resort. Since schizophrenia may not be a single condition and its causes are not yet known, current treatment methods are based on both clinical research and experience. These approaches are chosen on the basis of their ability to reduce the symptoms of schizophrenia and to lessen the chances that symptoms will return. Medications For Schizophrenia: Antipsychotic medications have been available since the mid-1950s. They have greatly improved the outlook for individual patients. These medications reduce the psychotic symptoms of schizophrenia and usually allow the patient to function more effectively and appropriately. Antipsychotic drugs are the best treatment now available, but they do not â€Å"cure† schizophrenia or ensure that there will be no further psychotic episodes. The choice and dosage of medication can be made only by a qualified physician who is well trained in the medical treatment of mental disorders. The dosage of medication is individualized for each patient, since people may vary a great deal in the amount of drug needed to reduce symptoms without producing troublesome side effects. The large majority of people with schizophrenia show substantial improvement when treated with antipsychotic drugs. Some patients, however, are not helped very much by the medications and a few do not seem to need them. No frames is difficult to predict which patients will fall into these two groups and to distinguish them from the large majority of patients who do benefit from treatment with antipsychotic drugs. A number of new ntipsychotic drugs (the so-called â€Å"atypical antipsychotics†) have been introduced since 1990. The first of these, clozapine (Clozaril), has been shown to be more effective than other antipsychotics, although the possibility of severe side effects – in particular, a condition called agranulocytosis (loss of the white blood cells that fight infection) â€⠀ requires that patients be monitored with blood tests every one or two weeks. Even newer antipsychotic drugs, such as risperidone (Risperdal) and olanzapine (Zyprexa), are safer than the older drugs or clozapine, and they also may be better tolerated. They may or may not treat the illness as well as clozapine, however. Several additional antipsychotics are currently under development. Antipsychotic drugs are often very effective in treating certain symptoms of schizophrenia, particularly hallucinations and delusions; unfortunately, the drugs may not be as helpful with other symptoms, such as reduced motivation and emotional expressiveness. Indeed, the older antipsychotics (which also went by the name of â€Å"neuroleptics†), medicines like haloperidol (Haldol) or chlorpromazine (Thorazine), may even produce side effects that resemble the more difficult to treat symptoms. Often, lowering the dose or switching to a different medicine may reduce these side effects; the newer medicines, including olanzapine (Zyprexa), quetiapine (Seroquel), and risperidone (Risperdal), appear less likely to have this problem. Patients and families sometimes become worried about the antipsychotic medications used to treat schizophrenia. In addition to concern about side effects, they may worry that such drugs could lead to addiction. However, antipsychotic medications do not produce a â€Å"high† (euphoria) or addictive behavior in people who take them. Another misconception about antipsychotic drugs is that they act as a kind of mind control, or a â€Å"chemical straitjacket. † Antipsychotic drugs used at the proper dosage does not â€Å"knock out† people or take away their free will. While these medications can be sedating, and while this effect can be useful when treatment is initiated particularly if an individual is quite agitated, the utility of the drugs is not due to sedation but to their ability to diminish the hallucinations, agitation, confusion, and delusions of a psychotic episode. Thus, antipsychotic medications should eventually help an individual with schizophrenia to deal with the world more rationally. Treatment of schizophrenia depends upon a life-long regimen of both drug and psychosocial, support therapies. While the medication helps control the psychosis associated with schizophrenia (e. g. , the delusions and hallucinations), it cannot help the person find a job, learn to be effective in social relationships, increase the individual's coping skills, and help them learn to communicate and work well with others. Poverty, homelessness, and unemployment are often associated with this disorder, but they don't have to be. If the individual finds appropriate treatment and sticks with it, a person with schizophrenia can lead a happy and successful life. But the initial recovery from the first symptoms of schizophrenia can be an extremely lonely experience. Individuals coping with the onset of schizophrenia for the first time in their lives require all the support that their families, friends, and communities can provide. ———————– 1

Ambition in Macbeth Essay

Julius Caesar once said â€Å"When the gods wish to take vengeance on a man for his crimes they usually grant him considerable success and a period of impunity, so that when his fortune is reversed he will feel it all the more bitterly†. This quote directly reflects the problem with over ambition in effective all cases. Being over ambitious can bring someone to great heights but usually also leads to their downfall. In William Shakespeare’s Macbeth, the situation is no different. Macbeth, the protagonist in the play, is cursed with over ambition. This affliction brings him to great heights in his career however ultimately leads him to his downfall. Three main examples of Macbeth’s blind ambition go as follows. Near the beginning of the play Macbeth is awarded the title of the Thane of Cawdor by the late Kind Duncan after he managed to capture the previous thane on crimes of treason. Macbeth is temporarily content with his title but that was not to last. Upon his wife, named Lady Macbeth, receiving word of a prophesy regarding Macbeth becoming king she begins to hatch a plot to have Macbeth seize power from Duncan. Macbeth, hesitantly accepts the plot after much prodding from his wife by saying† I am settled, and bend up each corporal agent to this terrible feat. Away, and mock the time with fairest show: false face must hide what the false heart doth know. †(1.7. 89-93) This simply means that he must hide his true intentions from Duncan before he kills him. Shortly after his coronation, Macbeth begins to fell unsafe with his position. He feels the guilt bearing down on him at almost every moment in the day and he has trouble sleeping. He ponders the witches prophesy and realizes the next step that he must take. The witches stated that Banquo â€Å"Thou shalt get kings, though thou be none: So all hail, Macbeth and Banquo! †(1.3.70-71) Given this knowledge, Macbeth is worried that Banquo may overthrow Macbeth. He hires three murderers to go out and kill Banquo and his son Fleance. He says â€Å"Well then, now Have you consider’d of my speeches? Know That it was he in the times past which held you So under fortune, which you thought had been Our innocent self: this I made good to you In our last conference, pass’d in probation with you, How you were borne in hand, how cross’d, the instruments, Who wrought with them, and all things else that might To half a soul and to a notion crazed Say ‘Thus did Banquo.’ † (3.1.80-90) By saying this, he basically pins all of their troubles on Banquo and thus giving them reason to kill him. The third and ultimately final example of Macbeth’s reckless ambition occurs when Macbeth has the family of MacDuff, one of his Thanes, killed to simply send a message to the people of Scotland that he was not to be trifled with. Coincidentally, the reason that spurred him on to do this and the reason MacDuff manages to convince Prince Malcolm are quite closely connected. MacDuff escapes to England to raise an army against Macbeth, upon arriving he is questioned by Malcolm who had escaped previously as to the reason for his arrival. The only thing that allowed MacDuff to convince Malcolm to do this for him was the furor he had mustered upon receiving word of his dead family. He exclaims: â€Å"O, I could play the woman with mine eyes And braggart with my tongue! But, gentle heavens, Cut short all intermission; front to front Bring thou this fiend of Scotland and myself; Within my sword’s length set him; if he ‘scape, Heaven forgive him too! † (4.3.269-273) In conclusion, these three events had temporarily positive effects and long lasting extremely negative effects on Macbeth and ultimately leading to his death. He did not remain content with the title bestowed upon him by Duncan and instead strive after the title for king for himself. He sought to stop  the prophesy bestowed upon him by the witches by having Banquo killed but revealing his guilt afterward. Finally he had the family of a potentially opposing thane murdered to send a message to him. Unchecked ambition has been the bane of powerful men and women throughout history and nothing has changed in William Shakespeare’s Macbeth.

Overview of Conflicts of Interest Essay

Confidentiality is also something that some volunteers of the Remedios AIDS Foundation should also learn. Although many officers of this NGO advocate confidentiality, many of its volunteers could still breach this ethical code, thus further isolating prospective clients. It is a well-known fact that the life of the first Filipino AIDS victim was made into a commercial movie, and had attracted thousands of audience – making it seem like a carnival show. This is precisely the kind of stigma that HIV/AIDS victims is afraid of, and something that the Remedios AIDS Foundation – and many other NGOs dealing with this disease — is trying to work out. The Remedios AIDS Foundation is also faced with the dilemma on how to conduct research without exposing the patients to various risks (CIOMS 1993). As an NGO that do social and medical research, it has to ensure that HIV/AIDS patients must also benefit from its studies. It is unethical to expose subjects to the risks of participating in a research study unless the design is sufficiently rigorous that the results will be valid and generalizable (U. S. National Commission for the Protection of the Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research). Another critical ethical consideration that must be dealt with accordingly by the Remedios AIDS Foundation is how to maintain objectivity in front of emotional patients. Culturally speaking, the Filipino people tend to be emphatic of each other’s plights, thus it is not an isolated case to find volunteers who are emotionally affected by the conditions of HIV/AIDS patients. This eventually leads them to quit from their volunteer work and/or to be personally involved in their patients’ cases, which often clouds their critical judgment. Applications The best thing to do here is to implement an intensive and extensive information campaign on AIDS and the advantages of belonging to a core group that can emotionally and physically assist the AIDS victims. Moreover, volunteers of the Remedios AIDS Foundation should also undergo intensive training and education on how to properly deal with HIV/AIDS patients. It must be noted that these patients are already wrapped in insecurity and treating them with slight uncertainty will only decrease their self-confidence. To meet the ethical obligations for research, on the other hand, this NGO must conduct studies whose sample sizes must be adequate. Suitable study endpoints must also be selected. It must also ensure that clinical trials must undergo preliminary laboratory and animal research. It must always take into consideration that research with human participants raises ethical concerns because people accept risks and inconvenience to advance scientific knowledge and to benefit others (Lo 2000). Social researchers of this NGO must also learn how to use language that is not offensive to study participants. Conclusion As one of the NGOs at the forefront of combating HIV/AIDS in the Philippines, the Remedios AIDS Foundation is faced with many ethical dilemmas that it is trying to overcome one by one. Although it is difficult to do in this largely Catholic country where promiscuity is being strongly detested and HIV/AIDS is being associated with promiscuity, it continues to embark on a rigorous warfare against HIV/AIDS in the country. Everything is an uphill battle because social norms and religiosity keep HIV/AIDS patients from coming forward in the open to seek for help. The NGO is looking for ways and means to solve this problem without losing its focus. As the officers and volunteers of the Remedios AIDS Foundation are also mostly Catholics, they also have to be able to move around their religious beliefs in order to stop being discriminatory to HIV/AIDS patients. They also have to ensure that their researchers are well-trained to avoid offending study participants and this can only be done by conducting intensive trainings. Lastly, objectivity should also be encouraged to avoid personal involvement in patients’ predicament. This last ethical issue should be encouraged to avoid conflict of interest on the part of the NGO. In the end, the officers and volunteers of this NGO are cognizant of the fact that unless these ethical concerns are addressed, their fight against HIV/AIDS will never be successful. References: Council for International Organizations of Medical Sciences (CIOMS). (1993) International Ethical Guidelines for Biomedical Research Involving Human Subjects. Geneva. de Bruyn, T. (1998) HIV/AIDS and Discrimination: A Discussion Paper. Montreal: Canadian HIV/AIDS Legal Network & Canadian AIDS Society. Lo B. (2000) Overview of Conflicts of Interest. In Resolving Ethical Dilemmas: A Guide for Clinicians. 2nd ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. Reproductive Health Outlook. (1997) HIV/AIDS Key Issues. Retrieved May 30, 2006 from http://www. rho. org/html/hiv_aids_keyissues. html U. S. National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research. (1978) The Belmont Report: Ethical Principles and Guidelines for the Protection of Human Subjects of Research. Washington, D. C. : Dept. of Health, Education and Welfare. The Offical Website of the Remedios AIDS Foundation. (1991) http://www.remedios.com.ph/

Vitamin D in Saudi Arabia Literature review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Vitamin D in Saudi Arabia - Literature review Example Vitamin D deficiency affects both phosphorus and calcium digestion. The main role of vitamin D is to regulate calcium levels within acceptable ranges. It achieves this by increasing intestinal calcium absorption. In a vitamin D deficiency state, 10-15 % of dietary calcium is absorbed by the intestine (Brown, Ignatius, Amling, & Barvencik 2013, p.1733-1742). In a vitamin D sufficient state, 30% of dietary calcium is absorbed and during pregnancy, growth or lactation, the absorption can go as high as 80% with increased demand for calcium. In circumstances of vitamin D deficiency, low ionized calcium concentrations espouse the secretion of parathyroid hormone. The parathyroid hormone increases calcium reabsorption in renal tubes and increases 1, 25-1-hydroxylase activity, which results in increased 1, 25- dihydroxy vitamin D (1, 25(OH) 2-D) production (Azhar 2009, p.19-25).   Pregnant women and infants in Saudi Arabia suffer so much of these conditions. Secondly, during old age, men t end to have weaker bones due to reduced calcium and phosphorus concentrations. Increased PTH concentrations result in the loss of phosphorous within the urine. Decreased levels of phosphorus and calcium results in reduced bone mineralization. In addition, reduced phosphorus concentrations lead to failure of the expected apoptosis of hypertrophied chondrocytes.  Ã‚   Calcification delay of osteoid causes osteomalacia in established bones. Osteomalacia in undeveloped bones is known as rickets (Azhar 2009 p.19-25).     Rickets is a description of the abnormal organization growth of the cartilaginous growth plate (Hovsepian 2011, p. 3). The clinical description of vitamin D deficiency that results in rickets is based on bone deformity signs and pain and may be related to hypocalcemia. This condition in Saudi Arabia affects both adults and young people.  

Database Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Database - Assignment Example The second layer is diversely treated by database modeling languages. Nevertheless, there are common features, especially type constructors. A common approach in most models is the generic definition of operations according to the structure of the type. The inductive specification of structuring is based on base types and type constructors. A type constructor is a function from types to a new type. The constructor can be supplemented with a selector for retrieval (like Select) with a retrieval expression and update functions (like Insert, Delete, and Update) for value mapping from the new type to the component types or to the new type, with correctness criteria and rules for validation, with default rules; current date for data assignment, with one or several user representations, and with a physical representation or properties of the physical representation. A base type is an algebraic structure B = (Dom(B); Op(B); Pred(B)) with a name, aSet of values in a domain, a set of operatio ns and a set of predicates. A class BC on the base type is a collection of elements from Dom (B). Usually, BC is required to be a set (DIETRICH, 2011). It can be also a list (denoted by ) multi-set ({|.|}), tree etc. Classes may be changed by applying operations. Elements of a class may be classified by the predicates. The value set can be discrete or continuous, finite or infinite. We typically assume discrete value sets. Typical predicates are comparison predicates such as ; Â ·; 6=; ?; =. Typical functions are arithmetic functions such as, - and x. The set of integers is given by the Integer Set. The base type is extended to a data type by explicit definition of properties of the under-lying value sets. Precision and accuracy; data can be precise to a certain extent. Precision is the degree of refinement in the calculations. Accuracy is a measure of how repeatable the assignment of values for properties is. Granularity: Scales can be fine or coarse. The accuracy of data depends on the granularity of the domain which has been chosen for the representation of properties. Ordering: The ordering of values of a given domain can be based on ordering schemes such as lexicographic, geographic or chronological ordering or on exact ordering such as orderings on natural numbers. The ordering can also be based on ontologies or categories. Scales have a range with lowest values and highest values. These values can be finite or infinite, if they are finite then overflow or underflow errors might be the result of a computation. Classification: The data can be used for representation of classifications; the classification can be linear, hierarchical, etc. The classification can be mono-hierarchical or poly-hierarchical, mono-dimensional, poly-dimensional, analytical, synthetically or even monothetic. The classification can be based on ontologies and can be maintained with thesauri. Presentation: The data type can be mapped to different representation types dependent on se veral parameters. For instance, in Web applications, the format chosen for presentation types of pictures depends on the capacity of the channel, on the compression etc. The presentation might be linear or hierarchical, and it can be layered. Implementation: The implementation the attribute type depends on the properties of the DBMS. The implementatio

A position for the development of a moral corporate culture Essay

A position for the development of a moral corporate culture - Essay Example The paper tells that when corporations fail to make profits and lose to the competition, they will try to find solutions to restructure their business. When corporations do this, they should be more concerned about providing services that are ethical and will provide better customer service. Corporations get their revenue from consumers otherwise they will not make money. In fact, successful corporations should collect data on most of the issues the world is facing today and make the best strategy on how they can eliminate such issues. There are some particular directions that would achieve â€Å"Moral Corporation,† which are providing equal employment, eliminating discrimination, and preserving the environment. Having a moral corporation is good because it gives back to the community. How this can be done is by putting into place protective measures for the environment, organizing and writing a code of ethics, and choosing to provide help in world issues staff are interested in. This paper seeks to study why Moral Corporation and the relevance of corporate culture and ethics to Moral Corporation. It is found that moral culture and ethical behaviors are necessary for the sustainability of the corporations as well as environmental protection and development for sustainable development of society. Corporations are made up of persons. A corporation can be as responsible as a citizen. Responsibility goes hand in hand with rights and duties. Living a life with morals is a personal responsibility of an individual. If the corporations can enjoy legal rights of the citizens, for example, to sue and to be sued, responsibility automatically devolves on them. The negative externalities refer to environmental consequences of business decisions. When a company manufactures a product, environmental pollution arising out of such activity is borne by the society. This effect on society or cost relating to it is not factored into the pricing of the products. Therefore, t he producers should be made responsible for these costs associated with negative externalities and their customers should bear this cost.

Planning Windows for Climate Change Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Planning Windows for Climate Change - Article Example There is a huge array of window types available now, and each type has its benefits and problems. There are many types of glass which conserve energy, but they can be costly and require changes in wall design. One might think that putting in fewer windows will solve the problems of climate change, but this not only make human spaces unattractive, it does not necessarily provide the best solution. Properly placed windows of the right type can actually increase the R-value of a wall, and glass walls which include solar energy design can actually provide a positive impact on energy use. There are simply many variables to consider in choosing and placing windows in buildings, so a plan for guidance will be a valuable addition to the body of knowledge. There are, essentially, three major factors we must consider when designing structures: the thermodynamics of the overall constructions, the various things which impact energy use from solar energy design to internal energy use and the availability, cost, structural needs and technical aspects of windows. By using a system of decision support for choosing window types and placement, architects can be better equipped to incorporate well-placed windows of the proper types to support the future needs in view of climate change. This research will create that tool. There are numerous studies that assumptions that the climate is changing or which actually present proof. One of the most important is Al Gore’s â€Å"An Inconvenient Truth† (2006). Gleick, Peter H., ed. 1993b. Water in Crisis.  

Crucial Stakeholders and Key Playes Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Crucial Stakeholders and Key Playes - Essay Example This article highlights on some of the ways that communication plan and the software would be useful for the project leader. The communication plan helps in setting up standards for communication. The project leader would need to establish the standards within which the communication will occur. The stakeholders would also need to be aware of the course of the communication with the indication of how and when it will take place. The communication plan enables the project leader to set the scope for all the communications that are relevant to the project. The communication plan is also significant for scheduling various projects, within a period, thereby making the stakeholders to be aware of the progress. The SharePoint software package offers a framework useful for keeping the publishing content relevant to the project management. Further, the software is also efficient in proper management of time since it offers the option of a search engine. Time saving is important in any projec t management especially when there is need to achieve a mission within a given period. The project leader would only need to enter a search phrase in order to access any needed information. The SharePoint enables the project leader to avoid wastage of time when searching for any content. The SharePoint is also important in helping the project leader to manage every processes occurring during the project. The software offers workflows, which makes it easy to manage the firm processes. This will be important in supporting sustainable practices within the offices and the departments. The use of the SharePoint during the project would help the project leader in keeping track of any incoming or outgoing communication. The ability to keep track of the flowing information is important in ensuring that every stakeholder is aware of the ongoing processes. In proper management of the firm’s processes, the project leader would need a proper communication plan to help in ensuring consist ency in the communication process. The presentation of the communication plan to the stakeholders helps them to maintain consistent communication with each other. The stakeholders would need to follow the communication plan to identify any information about the project management. The communication plan helps in harmonizing the stakeholders since all of them have similar information about the situation of the project. The project leader also has the ability to make the stakeholders aware about any change in the project. Consequently, the communication plan helps the project leader to avoid delays associated with the stakeholders being misinformed. Further, the communication plan and the SharePoint software also increases the productivity of the workers. The establishment of a communication plan ensures that every employee remains informed of every activity included in the project. For instance, the project leader of the company would need to keep the stakeholders aware of the need f or their input in reducing the volume of the solid wastes by 50%. This calls for the need of a communication plan, which is efficient in equipping the stakeholders with the necessary information. The communication plan helps in restricting the stakeholders to the scope of the project since keeps them within a loop of project happenings (Turner, 2003). With the communication

Clinical Case Study- Hyperosmolar Hyperglycaemic Syndrome Study

Clinical - Hyperosmolar Hyperglycaemic Syndrome - Case Study Example She was accompanied by her daughter. Mrs. L had a three-day history of confusion, lethargy and drowsiness. She complained of thirst for the last one week, drinking more than eight pints of water a day. Upon registration at the ambulance registration desk of the Emergency Department by administrators, Mrs. L was placed in a separate room, within the department for exceptional care. She was intubated and ventilated because of hypoxemia and poor conscious level, after which her fracture was attended to. Examination showed that the patient had a heart rate of 130, body temperature of 38.2 degrees Celsius, blood pressure of 150/80 and fair chest excursion, with loose wheezes, and serum pH of 7.5. Mrs. L was also dehydrated, as evidenced by her dry mucous membranes. Mrs. L’s spO2 reading was 80%. A blood sample was taken for checking. After the Doctor’s check ups, Mrs. L’s blood glucose was diagnosed with excess of 56. 5mmol. Therefore, her blood glucose was elevated. Tests involving Mrs. L’s urine were positive for glucose; however, she took long to pass urine. She was transferred to the resuscitation room to receive specialised care because she was categorised as having life-threatening conditions and injuries. After investigation from her close family member, the accompanying daughter, it was revealed that Mrs. L had fallen while she at the bathroom. That is why she had a fracture femur. Her family history was also significant for diabetes and hypertension. Clinical Manifestations Dehydration Dehydration is the insufficiency in the amount of water in the human body. It is prudent to identify and treat dehydration early enough to prevent further complications (Konrad, Corrigan, Hamilton, Steiger, & Kirby, 2013). This is because mild dehydration is known to cause tension and fatigue (Ganio & Armstrong, 2011). It can also cause lack of focus, according to (Szalavitz), 2012. It was established from clinical tests that Mrs. L had dry lips an d was dizzy, as well as, confused. Mrs. L also had dry mucous membranes. This was enough evidence that the patient was dehydrated. Most of the patients who are dehydrated are normally confused, dizzy, with dry lips and mucous membranes (Campbell, 2011) and (Heit, 2013). It was found out that the patient had complained of thirst for the previous one week, drinking more than eight pints of water a day, from the history of Mrs. L, provided by her daughter. It is healthy to drink lots of water but excessive thirst, and the frequent urge to drink too much water, exhibited by Mrs. L was a sign of dehydration. Finally, the fact that it took long for the patient to pass urine that was required for urine tests was a sign of dehydration. Hyperosomar Hyperglycaemia Syndrome is characterised by hyperglycaemia, extreme dehydration and hyperosmolar plasma (Balasubramaniyam, Palanis, & Rajamani, 2011). Hyperosomar Hyperglycaemia Syndrome is characterised by severe hyperglycaemia. This is a marked increase in serum osmolality and clinical evidence of dehydration, without the accumulation of acetoacetic ketoacids (Venkatraman & Singhi, 2006). Hyperglycaemia results from either an absolute or relative insulin deficiency. It ca also be a result of decreased tissue responsiveness to insulin, which is an increased insulin resistance. This results into gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis, leading into a reduced rate of glucose uptake and utilization by peripheral tissues. A rise in

Climate Change in the Context of Kuehne + Nagel Inc Coursework

Climate Change in the Context of Kuehne + Nagel Inc - Coursework Example From this paper it is clear that the trends in climatic changes are worsening with the increase in the occurrence of the unpredictable extreme events. Hence, the activities of Kuehne + Nagel Inc. are extremely affected by the negative change. Alongside, the adverse impacts trails of opportunities exist to market the firm due to its stability, and this increases the client bases. With the practical implementation of the recommendations, Kuehne + Nagel Inc. will overcome the inevitable catastrophes presented by the weather condition.   Ã‚  This essay discusses that  the current climate trends depict a long-term increasing inclination of the average temperature of the air. Precipitation is also in a dynamic pattern. However, it varies in a complicated manner. Climatologists predict that the trends will significantly pick up the pace in the future. A severely damaging concern caused by an elevation of temperature rates is the continually rising levels of the sea. From the year 1860, the level has increased by 0.2 meters as affirmed by satellite information. Scientists project that the temperature at the end of the 21st-century ranges between 1.0 to 3.7 degrees Celsius.  Additionally, the alteration in the conditions of climate may result in changes in duration, intensity, frequency, timing and spatial coverage of climate and weather extremes. These in turn can modify future climatic situations.

Critical Analysis of Research Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Critical Analysis of Research - Essay Example This document explores in detail, the purpose of the research, the techniques used in data collection and data analysis, findings of the research, the limitations of the study and finally gives the conclusion of the research. The document starts by giving an introduction to the study. In the introduction, the study provides a definition of power and then explores the various dimensions of power as brought out by different studies in the past. The document then explains how the research was conducted. It includes the qualifications and originality of the original researcher involved in the study and the methods of data collection and analysis. The document then goes ahead to give a detailed account of the findings of the study in relation to the three dimensions of power. The paper finally gives the limitations of the study and finally gives a clear conclusion from the study. Like any other study conducted before, this study has its strengths, weaknesses and assumptions that character ize it. These strengths and weaknesses manifest in the various stages of the study as outlined. In the introduction, the document gives a clear definition of terms as used in the study to enable any reader to understand the material as intended. It also provides a historical background of the study of the various dimensions of power, outlines the three aspects of power and how they manifest in society in general. It then gives a description of the different modes of public participation to prepare the reader for the case studies that form the backbone of the study (Culley & Hughey 2008: 100). The study uses a variety of techniques to collect the data required for the study. It is a major strength of the study since it is easy to determine the consistency of the obtained data from the various sources before making a meaningful conclusion. Interview was one of the methods of data collection

Marketing Plan New Product Essay Example for Free

Marketing Plan New Product Essay Titles Page No 1) Executive Summary 4 2) Current Marketing Situation 5-6 3) Threats and Opportunities 6-9 4) Objectives and issues 9-13 5) Marketing Strategy 13-19 6) Action Programs 19-21 7) Budgets and Controls 21-23 8) References 24 Executive Summary on Apogee Apogee is a shoe which is completely made from old, unused soccer balls. After using a soccer ball for quite sometimes it becomes unworthy to use. So people throw out the old soccer ball to buy a new one. But what they don’t realize is how harmful this plastic material can be for our environment. To remove this problem and also to make brand new merchandise we are going to produce trendy shoes from these unused soccer balls. These shoes can be worn by the people of all ages. These are also going to be stylish so fashion concerned people can feel attractive in them. Next comes the huge issue of environment safety. There are many products in the market which are very useful but there deathly for our environment. But this shoe is completely made from recycling old soccer balls. So it does no harm to our environment. In fact it works to protect the environment. The third issue is price. People want to wear new and fashionable shoes. But most of them can’t afford such expensive products. As apogee is made from old soccer balls it is really cheap to produce. So we can offer people new and trendy shoes at a minimum price. Reviewing all the features of apogee we can assertively say that this product is going to be popular, environment friendly and last but not the least inexpensive. Current marketing situation We are planning to produce shoes from recycled soccer balls. In the current market people of all classes need shoes. They want more trendy sturdier shoes. Furthermore people are now more conscious about the environment they live in. So we choose this idea of making shoes from recycled soccer balls keeping in mind the environment as well as the customers both at international and domestic level. Our customers: In todays modern world there is a craze about sports, particularly about football.Soccer mania is here and everyone seems to be riding high on the popularity wave. Everyone watches football now a days, so what if they could use a product that not only served their purpose but also indicate their love for the game and that’s how we came up with the idea of making shoes from recycled soccer balls. Football is popular around the  globe , specially in Europe and south america. As we are planning for a global launch of our product we will concentrate particularly on these region. The youths of Bangladesh are quite interested about sports and of course football, so we are developing our product keeping in mind their taste and preferences. We are hoping we can go global with our product after we are successful in making it a success in our domestic market. Market segmentation: We are planning to divide our market on the differences of our customers trend,style and fa shion. We will develop these shoes for both boys and girls. For Boys and girls who are aged from 10 to 15, we will asses their current demand for new shoes and also we will customize them according to their needs. We will use the same strategy for customers aged 16 and above. Thinking internationally, we may think about the international preferences of our global customers. We will also give our customers the alternative to customize their product according to their need and taste. Current market competitors: currently adidas and nike are dominating the sports accessories business by providing state of the art merchandises specially sports shoes. But what we want to do is we want to create an positive image of our product by creating the ultimate soccer shoes that is available and most importantly affordable for the customers. Furthermore we are using recycling material to make this product that will also create a positive image. As they say â€Å" first impression is the last impression† and that’s exactly what we are planning to do. We wan to make a global impact. Opportunity We cannot sustain our consumerist lifestyle without getting inundated by garbage and exhausting the earth’s resources. Solid waste disposal experts engage in an uphill struggle to contain this virtual avalanche of garbage we produce every day. It is apparent that digging a hole, a landfill, is clearly not the answer. Sooner or later, the waste becomes uncontainable and will spill into our farming areas, forests, and water sources. Here we have shown some opportunities of producing shoes from recycling football soccer Good raw material: As football is an international game and it is produced for international purpose, we are getting almost best quality of product. If we recycle the  soccer and if we produce shoes from this waste material, ultimately we are getting good quality material for producing shoes. Less expensive: Many of we have the tendency to buy pure leather shoes. Sometimes we desire to buy but we step back when there is a question of money. If we use the useless soccer we will be able to reduce the cost of soccer and so ultimately we will reduce the purchasing price also. Save animals life: As we are using football soccer as our raw material which people consider as wastage, we are helping our environment to keep sound. When we are using animal leather, animal lives are in danger. So if we use the soccer we will be able to protect the life and it will be environment friendly. Proper utilization of resources: We are using the proper use of resources which is also good for environment. Environment friendly: Football is made with plastic, synthetic paper, leather and rubber. We know plastic, synthetic paper, plastic are discomposed material. When we get the utility, we throughout the ball in the dustbin that may causes problem to the environment. It may stick in the drain and can create problem in drainage system. Objectives and Issues of APOGEE: Marketing plans are written documents that help us communicate our marketing efforts for the following year. One of the most important parts of the marketing plan is the objectives and issues section, which helps internal employees or external stakeholders understand the marketing goals. 1. To save our Environment Our main objective is to save our environment through recycling. We will prepare shoes by recycling footballs. In recent years, scientists have been carefully examining the ways that people affect the environment. They have found that we are causing air pollution, deforestation, acid rain, and other problems that are dangerous both to the earth and to ourselves. With the help of recycling we can protect our environment to some extent. Recycling is a process using materials (waste) into new products to  prevent waste of potentially useful materials, reduce the consumption of fresh raw materials, reduce energy usage, reduce air pollution (from incineration) and water pollution (from land filling) by reducing the need for conventional waste disposal, and lower greenhouse gas emissions as compared to plastic production. When a football gets old and rusty, it has no use. We often throw it into the dustbin or somewhere else. It is polluting our air and land. With the help of recycling we can convert these footballs into shoes. We hope it will reduce air and land pollution and thus we can protect our environment. 2. Sell quality shoes with low price: Another objective is to sell quality shoes with low price. People now are very concern about quality and price. They want high quality product with low price. So we will sell high quality products with low price. 3. Increase market share: Another objective is to increase our market share. With the help of marketing strategy we can increase our market share. In this case we have to invest a lot of money in promotion and distribution of the product. We are expecting to increase our market share up to 10% in the next year. 4. To be the number one in the existing market One of the most important objective is to be the number one in the existing market. For these reason we have to implement our market strategies properly which have been discussed later. Issues that can affect our objectives: 1. Environmental issue: Environment means everything that makes up our surroundings and affects our ability to live on the earth. Today environmental issue is very important. There are many organizations who are working to protect the environment. They are creating pressure on the companies. So we will sell environment friendly product. We will not use any synthetic leather or any other chemicals that may cause harm to our environment. 2. Health issue: Today people are very health conscious. They want to know everything about the product. If they feel that  the product they are using are not safe, they will not use the product. APOGEE shoes are really safe because it is a green product. We will not use any chemical product in producing the shoes. 3. Social issue: We have to work in our society. So we have some social responsibilities. We have to think about our society and produce products according to their needs and wants. We should keep a friendly relationship with the people of our community. 4. Child labor issue: Another important issue is child labor issue. According to the labor act policy in 2006 child labor has been banned from all the industries. Showing respect to the law we will not use any child as our labor. 5. High quality with low price issue: People now are very concern about quality and price. They want high quality product with low price. So we will sell high quality products with low price. We will also give some discount to our customers. Marketing Strategy Of Apogee : Introducing a new product to the market can be a challenging task for a business. No matter how much confidence you have in the value of the product or how unique it is, there are still things to consider before unleashing it on the public. The marketing concept of building an organization around the profitable satisfaction of customer needs has helped firms to achieve success in high-growth, moderately competitive markets. However, to be successful in markets in which economic growth has leveled and in which there exist many competitors who follow the marketing concept, a well-developed marketing strategy is required. Such a strategy considers a portfolio of products and takes into account the anticipated moves of competitors in the mark. Customer Driven Marketing Strategies for Apogee : Making strategy decisions need to be customer driven as your end customers are the ones who will be making purchase to our products and services. The topic of Customer Driven Marketing is how to divide up the identified market into meaningful customer groups, choose which customer groups to serve, create market offerings that best serve targeted customers and position the offerings in the minds of customers – referred to market segmentation,  targeting, differentiation and positioning. The reason for having customer driven marketing strategies is companies today cannot appeal to all buyers in the marketplace. Buyers’ behaviors are difficult to predict, too widely scattered and too varied in their needs and buying practices. Companies must design customer driven marketing strategies that build the right relationships with the right customers. Why Customer Driven Marketing for Apogee : In a nutshell, with proper application of a customer driven marketing strategy, the we can focus our efforts on meeting distinct needs of individual market segment to target segments in which it can profitably generate and sustain customer value. It can then communicate deliver the chosen position with its resources available for an effective strategic marketing plan. With a customer driven marketing approach, the company has clearer direction to maintain its desired marketing position on targeted market segment(s) through consistent performance communications. Nonetheless, for larger companies such as Unilever and PG, they can offer complete range of products to serve all market segments to meet customers’ needs. We must divide up the total market ,choose the best segments and design strategies for profitably serving chosen segments. This process involves market segmentation ,market targeting , differentiation and positioning . Market Segmentation : As we are making shoes from recycled soccer balls and its for everyone ( Boys,girls,Childrens) we can divide our markets into 2 types – 1. Customers Aged 10-15. 2. Customers Aged 16 and above. Market Targeting : Footwear sales have been falling in developed countries and slowing in emerging countries due to lower income levels; and therefore, less spending on apparel and footwear. Consumers are  focusing increasingly on value for money, looking for simple, hard-wearing shoes that last . As children and young people are passionate about stylish shoes we are focusing them as our target market . Positioning : We will make our shoes more attractive than our market competitors . We will sell our shoes at a reasonable price . We will give them longer lasting shoes and will guarantee them for a certain period. We will use our distinctive shoe logo or Brand name so that we can hold our market for a long time. At the beginning we will give advertisements to acknowledge them about our products .We will give discounts for our special customers . Our shoe logo Differentiation : We will serve our customer a different service compared better than our competitors on the following basis : I. We will make our Shoes attractive. II. We will sell our shoes at reasonable price. III. We will give discount to our customers . IV. Will give them guarantee for our products . V. Will take orders from customers to make customized shoes . Marketing Mix : This section outlines how we will make strategies for each marketing mix element of our Apogee shoes and how each responds to the threats , opportunities and critical issues . Product : In order to outdo our competitors we will take specific strategies for our product .The strategies will be – 1. We will make a variety of products on some specific categories such as for boys shoes ,Sandals , Sport shoes for girls we will make clogs ,lace ups, heel shoes etc. 2. We will always promise them  100% best quality for our product . 3. We will follow Fendi ,DIESEL ,Armani , Burberry ,Moschino designs to make our shoes . 4. We will use clear shoe box, ,paper shoe boxes in packaging our shoes . 5. We will make it eco -friendly. paper shoe boxes plastic shoe box clear shoe box Price : We will always try to give customers good quality shoes at a reasonable price .For this we need to take some sort of incentives , they are – 1. We will give price tag on each of our shoes. 2. We will give 5% discount on our shoes at the starting of our business in order to get consumer attention on our shoes. Place : 1. We will open our branches in home and abroad. 2. We will try to open our branches in U.S.A , Canada , South-Africa .So we will obviously try to make an influence on consumers to buy our product. 3. We will always try to sell the shoes that were produced first. 4. As shoes will be produced in Bangladesh we need to transport them across national boarder and in home .We prefer to transport shoes to abroad by air and in home by our private transport . Promotion : 1. We will advertise our shoes on newspaper, magazines , and on t.v. 2. We will open our own branch in home and abroad . 3. We will show the positive sides of our products such as its durability, comfort ability , up to date with latest designs and customer choices . ACTION PROGRAMES A Marketing Action Plan is a way of putting in place a structured series of activities to get a predictable result. Here are the basic steps: 1. Define the service we want to offer. 2. Define our Target Market for the service. 3. Define additional outcomes 4. Plan the resources required 5. Plan of costing Financial Plan Our financial plan is based on receiving several loans to purchase/fabricate the production equipment, provide initial operating capital, and establish the customer value. We will achieve profitability early in the first year and due to the expected high growth rate, we will realize strong profits on sales by net year. APOGEE shoes are made with recycled soccer ball and produced in fair-trade factories. We also sell only to independent retailers worldwide in order to cycle money back into local economics. Our hope is that people with similar philosophies will be inspired by our experiment in grassroots capitalism and start their own business ventures. This company pretty much focuses on one thing: recycled material. In making shoes, we use 80% recycled material and other things. Our principles underlie on low cost, but effective marketing strategies. Budgeting Apogee develop and make use a effective budget plan that will make sure to achieve expected profit rate. The following is an estimate of the sources of our principal costs: Capital costs †¢ Land fees †¢ cost of special equipment and †¢ Cost of set-out containers. Operating Costs †¢ Labor; †¢ Supplies; †¢ Administrative and Overhead; †¢ Truck Maintenance; †¢ Fuel, Maintenance; †¢ licenses, insurance, registration fees; Cost of Production WE will establish a minimum cost estimate for producing hoe. As we use the useless soccer ball for producing hoe the cost will not be high than using the material. Recycling less energy and generate less pollution than using less material. So here we have low energy cost. Promotion cost Our budget include marketing cost. Because e need to advertise.issue pre release, and make calls to potential customer. We will determine the cost of each marketing element. Labor cost In Bangladesh, the labor cost is not high. Here at first e hire some labors who are expert in this work. We analysis that this cost will not exceed our budget. We will make sure that we can get maximum output from labor. Distribution cost Apogee first launch some testing product and when it reached at higher growth rate then it ill export it product to other country. Controlling Apogee practice a constant marketing control process. First it set specific marketing goal. Then we will measure it performance in the marketplace and then evaluate the cause of any difference between expected and actual performance. Finally it takes corrective action to close the gap between it goal and it performance. This may require changing the action program or even changing the goal. (RESOURCES) Recycling Benefits A Recycling Revolution www.recycling-revolution.com/recycling-benefits.htm Threats on scrap sources accessibility: the loss of access and a new www.institut.veolia.org/recycling/recycling/recycling-threats.as Photos National Geographic Kids kids.nationalgeographic.com/kids/photos/

Economic Impact Of India Hosting The Commonwealth Games Tourism Essay

Economic Impact Of India Hosting The Commonwealth Games Tourism Essay As well as many Olympic sports, the Games also include some sports that are played mainly in Commonwealth countries, such as lawn bowls, rugby sevens and netball The Games are overseen by the Commonwealth Games Federation (CGF), which also controls the sporting programmed and selects the host cities. The host city is selected from across the Commonwealth, with eighteen cities in seven countries having hosted it. The event was first held in 1930 under the title of the British Empire Games in Hamilton, Ontario, Canada. The event was renamed as the British Empire and Commonwealth Games in 1954, the British Commonwealth Games in 1970, and gained its current title in 1978. Only six teams have attended every Commonwealth Games: Australia, Canada, England, New Zealand, Scotland and Wales. Australia has been the highest achieving team for eleven games, England for seven and Canada for one. There are currently 54 members of the Commonwealth of Nations, and 71 teams participate in the Games. The four Home Nations of the United Kingdom England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland send separate teams to the Commonwealth Games, and individual teams are also sent from the British Crown dependencies of Guernsey, Jersey and the Isle of Man (unlike at the Olympic Games, where the combined Great Britain team represents all four home nations and the Crown dependencies). Many of the British overseas territories also send their own teams. The Australian external territory of Norfolk Island also sends its own team, as do the Cook Islands and Niue, two states in free association with New Zealand. It was reported that Tokelau, another dependency of New Zealand would be sending a team to the 2010 Games in New Delhi, India. In the end however they did not. Common Wealth Games 2010 in India To Aim is to Achieve-India has aimed for successfully hosting the prestigious mega event of Commonwealth Games and India will achieve it. To fulfill this dream an enormous amount of work needs to done. This dream was born long back when India hosted the Asian Games in 1982, the entire nation dream of hosting the Olympics one day. After a long gap of more than 20 years and due to lack to will and infrastructure we were unable to get the opportunity again. This time, the things fall our way and we won the bid to host the nineteenth Commonwealth Games in 2010. The vision was to host the mega event in a way it has never happened before and leave a mark in the history of the event organization. As the time passed by the vision became the mission and Delhi has to gear up to create the state of the art infrastructure. New Delhi was deliberately chosen as it has its rich experience of the Asian Games behind. Moreover it has some already existed infrastructure like Indira Gandhi Arena, Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium, Dhyan Chand National stadium etc. The rich culture of Delhi and its hospitality also plays a pivotal role in the organization. To accomplish the mission a total budget of US$ 1.6 billion is estimated which will make the 2010 event, the most expensive Commonwealth Games ever. Games Village: A new modern games village of 63.5 hectare is being built on the bank of river Yamuna at the cost of USD 230.7 million. It is situated near the renowned landmark Akshardham Temple. The village will hold the capacity of 8500 athletes and officials. The old stadiums like Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium are also getting a facelift. A new society is getting constructed along the village side to provide free accommodation and cutting health facilities to the athletes. Infrastructure: The preparation is on full swing and Delhi is experiencing a city makeover. To boost up the infrastructure Delhis transport was the biggest pain, to eradicate this problem Delhi Metros plan was POSTIVES OF COMMONWEALTH ON INDIAN ECONOMICS India is a developing country. Ironically, India is a country which is, on one hand struggling with the problem of poverty since the time of independence while on the other hand is spending millions on the Commonwealth Games. But the people on the other side of the coin think that it will lead to urban regeneration, economic profit development of Delhi in terms of new hotels, metro extention, flyovers etc. and will give India great exposure to the world through global media. Economy of the country is complex structure which depends on agriculture innovative developement,manufacturing goods sctor,services rendered by the country ,infrastructure developement etc .The conduction of Sports developes the professionals in the fled of sports and games and bring the country in the eyes of the world with a minor impact on the economy in the form of improving the local infrastructure Think thrice before doing wrong things but dont think fraction of second before doing good things Commonwealth Games 2010 is going to be the biggest Commonwealth Games in history. It is only fair that one should expect that India should get good returns on the amount of resources and time that India has invested in the Games. Yes, one can rightly call it an investment, for the benefits that India can come to gain from the Games are enormous. The Commonwealth Games hold the promise of great economic returns even after they are over. The development and building of the infrastructure in Delhi in preparation for the Games have already released a lot of money into the economy. The building of sports venues, hotels, flyovers etc have involved many contractors, construction companies, and daily wage earners. The amount of work that is being done across the city is making sure that a lot of jobs are on offer. Even after completion, these projects will require management and maintenance, especially the sports venues, stadiums, and hotels thereby generating more job openings. To accommodate the tourists expected during the Commonwealth Games numerous small hotels, bed breakfasts and other hotels are being built to meet the requirements as estimated by the government. The Games, even before officially having started are generating jobs on a large scale. But once the Games start, that is when the Government of India expects to break even and maybe gain even more. ASSOCHAM (The Associated Chambers of Commerce and Industry of India) predicts that tourism alone is going to bring in US$ 16.915 million in 2010 because of the Games. All tourism industries and industries related to providing services to tourists are expecting a rainfall during the Games, and seeing the above figure, they are right in doing so. India estimates 10 million tourists will visit India in 2010, with a large percentage of them coming during the Games. The main industries expected to benefit from this are Tour Operators, Travel Agents, Hotel Industry, Aviation Industry, Airport Authorities, and the Delhi Metro Rail Corporation. Even the small industries, which produce and market small knick knacks, such as the markets in Janpath, Sarojni Nagar etc and even the malls and bigger markets are going to benefit during the Games. The cities surrounding Delhi, that serve a s weekend getaways and popular tourist destinations, are also looking forward to a large influx of tourists. The games are going to benefit a lot of people indeed. It is only once the Games get over that the real long term benefits to the Indian economy are going to come into effect. If Delhi can pull off a good show during the Games, Delhi and India may find itself soon becoming a tourist hotspot. The average number of foreign tourists coming to India is going to rise by an estimated 5 10% after the Games. Currently India gets only a small percentage of income generated by the tourism industry worldwide. The Games will give Delhi and thus India great publicity as a tourist destination, and give its image as a tourist destination a much-needed boost. The success of the Games holds a lot in its hands. Until now, India has been a tourist destination for the eccentric or adventurous traveler, this all stands to change after the Games, and all this change is good, as it will benefit India and its people. 2. Worldwide Experiences The world over, cities vie with each other to host hallmark events such as the Olympics, World Cups etc. It is seen by many as a sure way of shooting the host city into the limelight, resulting in an economic windfall (Baade and Matheson, 2003), and at the same time giving these host cities the impetus to improve domestic facilities and infrastructure. The impact of being the host city, range from the physical (construction projects) to the intangible (local self-esteem or international impact). The impact that an event of this kind has on the urban landscape can largely be gauged by the size of the Legacy that it creates. It is important to note here that it is not only legacy creation that is important, but creating a legacy which is beneficial to the host community post games, and which justifies the costs involved. The controversy surrounding these events however is centred on its economic sense. Do these games make money for the host city or not? The data from past Olympic Games seems to suggest not Sector Changes caused by the Olympics Transportation The transportation system is changed by an improved infrastructure and new concepts of public transportation. In Munich 72, the subway was expanded, in Seoul 88 many major roads were improved and in Barcelona 92 the ring roads were built. Telecommunication system A high standard in telecommunications is another important location factor to keep existing, or attract new enterprises. In this sector, the Olympics bring the latest technology into the city to satisfy the demand in telecommunications services during the Olympics. After the games, the systems remain existent. Sports facility structure Olympics have the strongest influence on the sports facilities structure in the city. There must be adequate and sufficient sports and training facilities for all sports at An international level. After the games, these facilities are often available for leisure Sports. Housing In most cities, Olympic villages are newly constructed. The question of the social distribution of the newly created housing units is reviewed. In Munich 72, the Olympic Village was constructed for the socially deprived groups of society. In other cities, the Olympic Villages were sold to the middle and lower-upper classes. In Los Angeles 84 and Atlanta 96, the villages continued to be students homes. Urban culture The general embellishment of a city, an improved transportation system, additional leisure time facilities and numerous ecological projects frequently lead to a revival of the city centre by improving the city atmosphere. Source: Preuss, 1998 the costs of these mega-events almost always run in to billions of dollars. Japan spent over $4 billion, and South Korea $2 billion, on new stadiums and infrastructure for the 2002 World Cup. China has spent a reported $20 billion on infrastructure improvements ahead for 2008 Olympics. Athens spent over $1 billion only on security expenses during the 2004 Olympics (Baade, R and Matheson, V, 2003). Substantial economic impact provides backers of such events with a justification for public subsidies for mega-event infrastructure. They argue that the expenditure must be viewed as an investment that will in turn give returns. However this is a case where vested interests are at stake. Many independent researchers have found that ex ante predictions made by the event organizers of economic impact, far exceed the ex post estimates. The obvious question that NEGATIVES OF COMMON WEALTH GAMES Corruption in Commonwealth Games There are also allegations of wide spread corruption in various aspects of organising the games including procurement and awarding contracts for constructing the game venues. The Commonwealth Games Organizing Committee on 5th Aug 2010 suspended T S Darbari (joint director in the organizing committee) and Sanjay Mahendroo (deputy director general in the organising committee) following the report of the three-member panel which was probing the financial irregularities related to the Queens Baton Relay. Also Organizing Committee treasurer Anil Khanna resigned from the post in the wake of allegations that his sons firm had secured a contract for laying synthetic courts at a tennis stadium.    The two principal bids for the 2010 Commonwealth Games India is a developing country. Focus on the word developing as India is not yet developed. Ironically, India is a country which is, on one hand struggling with the problem of poverty since the time of independence while on the other hand is spending millions on the Commonwealth Games! Forty percent of Indias population is below the poverty line which clearly indicates that the booming Indian economy is still unable to feed a majority of its citizens. Climatic change like global warming is causing an agricultural crisis for the peasants all over the country, worsening their conditions which, in turn, is leading to inflation in the economy, energy resources are getting depleted, unskilled and poor people are forced to get involved in unorganized employment with least possible wages and lets not forget the skilled and literate unemployedà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦but who really cares? India is too busy with Commonwealth Games! Indias present goal should be the development of human resources, dealing with poverty and creating a healthy, wealthy and literate India. I believe that as a result of the approaching Commonwealth Games, India, especially Delhi is undergoing a complete makeover where the infrastructure is concerned. Lavish five-star hotels, better flyovers, etc, are being constructed. Better buses can be seen running on the roads of Delhi. Why all this? Just to show that India is on its way to become a developed nation soon? But can it hide those shabby and disguised slums behind the shimmering and glamorous construction? Can it suppress the cries of those million hungry stomachs? Can it? Unfortunately not! And can anyone explain how modern infrastructure helps those million unemployed men who have to support half a dozen of their family members without any source of income? I wont deny the fact that may be these games will have an international impact and benefit a particular section of the society temporarily. But this is where the most significant question arises that if the games will benefit a certain strata of the society which is already rich and powerful then what happens to those strata of the Indian population which is below the poverty line? Who bears the responsibility of their welfare? I also agree that the Commonwealth Games will usher in a certain amount of employment but will it offer employment to millions of unemployed? And by the way this is only for a temporary period of time. Then what? Back to square one? Thus, a country like India wearing poverty in the form of national shame cannot afford to conduct such games at the cost of its poverty stricken citizens. Therefore India should first win the race against poverty and then think of going international through such ventures. Hence Indias poverty and the hosting of Commonwealth Games are not at all compatible as for a nation the welfare of its citizen is its first priority and not the conduction of sports and leisure. 6. Conclusion One can see that at least on paper; the city is all set to transform itself by the time it plays host to the Commonwealth Games. However it is also necessary to keep one thing in mind, and that is that Delhi is otherwise too a rapidly growing city, a dynamic economy and an integral part of Indias growth engine. Delhi is estimated to have a population of approx. 192 lakh people by 2010, compared to 140 lakh in 2001, a growth of nearly 40%16. This means that it would be wrong to place the causation of all infrastructure and urban development onto the Commonwealth Games. A large amount of it would probably have taken place anyway, the games just gives it a geographical bias and a deadline. The world over there is a serious re-think taking place among city officials as well as academics about the way to go about these events. Do they do more harm than good is not a question that has been answered conclusively, as many of the benefits derived are intangible ones. However it has yet to be conclusively shown that these events are beneficial as well and it is crucial to examine each event independently, studying its unique characteristics, as well as examine previous events and try and learn from their mistakes. Delhis citizens have a right to know about the benefits that such events can have to the city, but need to be informed of the downsides as well. The present plan for the Commonwealth Games may be a recipe for an ecological and financial disaster, or they might finally put the city, and the country, on the world map. They may bring in a new era where electricity and water problems, perennial problems in the city, are no longer an issue or they might increase the burden on an already overloaded system. Popular perception tells us that the Asian Games was an unmitigated success. Closer analysis tells us that it was not so simple. The Commonwealth Games, with some smart marketing, may just follow in those footsteps.

Separates Science From All Other Human Activities Philosophy Essay

Separates Science From All Other Human Activities Philosophy Essay Science is distinguished for its changeable nature of conclusions. It addresses the method  used to reach conclusions; the ideas of verification, falsification, and the thought that science presents its theories with a degree of probability. The conclusions in science are conditional because currently they are considered to be true, but according to the nature of the science, they are subject to change. Science is defined as knowledge gained by systematic experimentation and analysis (Munday). What distinguishes the sciences from other areas is a very different method of finding truth. The definition of truth in this case is what works in practice or is useful to us because science is heavily based on the pragmatic theory (Munday). The question is perhaps misleading since it doesnt mention which type of science is implied; natural science, human science, or ethical science Science is a provisional human activity; this can be observed when comparing areas of knowledge in terms of pr ovisional conclusions. Science is a practice where truth is supported through experimentation and observations. It is a posteriori knowledge, meaning that it is knowledge that is derived from experience or empirical evidence. People state that science is based on too many assumptions, and the rules always change, therefore, we should employ other ways of knowing such as our perception. In my view, the main reason we should appreciate this way of knowing; the conclusions of science are changeable. These regular changes show that even though we might never find out the truth, we are progressing in subjects such as biology, physics, chemistry, etc. However, by expressing it as a pragmatic way of knowing, we can see that science is about discovering the truth. This truth may not be the perfect truth such as outlined by Plato with his idea of ideal forms. This truth is more concerned with value or usefulness. Within the history of science, scientific laws and theories have been changed or have been disproved. F or example, there was a cubical atom theory that stated that all atoms had a shape of a cube (Munday). This theory was disproved by many scientists such as Bohr and Rutherford (Munday). We now have a different prediction of what the atom is due to quantum mechanics (Munday). However, if you take account of Quantum Theory, then even the conclusions about the physical world become highly provisional reality is no longer deterministic and mechanistic, and some of our conclusions about this reality end up being provisional. Scientific knowledge is derived from the use of a precise, rigorous method that involves inductive logic. For example, if I observe that water always boils at 100 °C when I am cooking (Arnhart), I assume that this will always be the case (induction). However, if I were to boil water in Denver, Colorado, a location 1.6 km above sea level, I would discover that the water now boils at 94 °C, as the pressure on the liquid is reduced (Arnhart). As we can see, the ind uctive component of the scientific method can sometimes lead to an incorrect hypothesis. Even if a scientific theory has been rigorously tested one million times there is always the possibility that an exception will be found, and hence the theory falsified. Karl Popper acknowledged this problem and suggested that a hypothetical deductive method should be used, whereby false hypotheses are discarded through trials and disproof (Arnhart). This means we cannot prove a theory is correct; we can only prove that a hypothesis is false. Thus we can never know that a scientific theory is true; the reason why scientific conclusions are provisional. For instance, a scientist is trying to find a cure for cancer, but instead finds out how a persons brain works, he still expands our knowledge of all the things around us, even though that scientist was trying to find a different answer. This usefulness always reshapes our knowledge since it brings in new ideas and models that attempt to explain t he patterns that are all around us and where conclusions are made according to the current knowledge. Our knowledge is available to adapt by being provisional. With science, we accept our limitations of todays instruments, and we analyze the situation and what we can potentially do for further knowledge or experimentation. Science doesnt stop improving our customs of experimenting even though we know we cant reach the perfect truth (Plato) making it provisional even if it may seem to be currently true. Science is so relied upon for this reason that it advances our society. One of the main differences between the Natural and Human Sciences (ethics, history) is the object of study: while the Natural Sciences observe and experiment on the world of nature, the Human Sciences focus more on human behaviour. Humans are, arguably, less predictable and stable than the natural world, so the conclusions about our behaviour should be more provisional than the conclusions reached. Although science is the answer to many of our disputes, it is based mostly on theoretical predictions, and that creates a fallacy. For example, scientists in a university have made a device to clean and purify water for the people in South Africa and they have sent it to Africa (Arnhart). Once the device was in use, it killed 45% of the people in 3 weeks. A study relived that the filter used did stop Cysts (bacteria) from going through initially but these bacteria started to grow inside the filter clogging the filter. Nothing was noticed because the bacteria were so small, and the pressur e of the water squeezed the 4.5 micron bacteria into the 1 micron holes of the filter. In theory, filter was a valid device to use to clean the water but when in application is failed. These predictions are based on theoretical assumptions. Even though our limitations can be accurate even, this accuracy is not perfect; we try to achieve the best at finding a conclusion. Yet, the uncertainty of the conclusion can still prove it false, and so the science turns provisional. Math is a very different area of knowledge. The only difference today is that math is much more complex in applications of basic principles. The definition of math is the system of quantities, forms, space and their relationships in use of numbers and symbols.   The Egyptians came up with simple functions such as addition. These functions are still useful since we substitute symbols to represent difference concepts in reality. The symbols and applications might differ, but the expressions stay the same. The ancient Greeks used symbols rather than numbers; equations, they came up with were the same. One may deduce that math is not a provisional subject. In many ways, math is the foundation of other areas of knowledge such as analysis and measurement in sciences. In some cases, wed never find out more about certain topics. For instance, the string theory can only be proven with math because physically we cant comprehend eleven dimensions. Multiplication will not change over time comp ared to a scholar learning how his brain works- he will soon have to update his knowledge because what we know in the field of science always changes. Today, scientists try to link the missing puzzle pieces; however, once a scientist connects a puzzle to the whole picture, and it is perceived to be the correct placement, then more and more questions arise. Furthermore, in math, once something is proved, it is no longer contested. For example, today nobody should argue that two multiplied by five is not ten. Math, arguably, is a human construct; it is up to us to make up symbols that would represent the patterns that we encounter. The knowledge and conclusions of math arent that provisional but its application is. Like science, art has many changing conclusions. When a person looks at a picture, he invariably interprets it and evaluates it. However, when a different individual looks at the same picture, he might interpret it in a very different way. These interpretations can vary because of many aspects. Ones age, for example; there is a painting of a cow (Arnhart). An elder might think of it as a source of meat, while a boy might see a joy ride (Arnhart). Thus each person has concluded on a different interpretation and this uncertainly on which is the true conclusion makes the art as a area of knowledge provisional. Generally, conclusions in art are based on the frames of reference of the person that is evaluating the art piece with a personal experience or posteriori knowledge. Thus, art is provisional in nature because even one painting might have different conclusions based on it. By comparing math, sciences, and art one can see that the knowledge gained from the sciences change; however, it is not the only subject that is provisional, that is shown through subjects such as art and history. Even one art piece can have many conclusions associated with it. The statement what separates science from all other human activities is its belief in the provisional nature of all conclusions (Michael Shermer, www.edge.com) is only partly true since science is provisional; however, that doesnt separate it from all other human activities. Math is an example of a static subject whereas, science is a subject open to debates and updates. We might think that sciences are not important to us since what we know now as the truth always changes; however, we must understand that a person who is confident that he knows everything will never learn. Through science we accept that our knowledge is limited, and we strive to improve what we already have. Even though some scientific knowle dge is considered be truth, it is still provisional since science is focused on disproving predictions and not on gathering enough evidence to make the conclusion valid or sound. Without science, one may argue, we would never achieve the advancements that we are fortunate to have today. Word Count: 1652

The Effects of Affirmative Action on Law Students and Lawyers :: Lawyers African American Essays

The Effects of Affirmative Action on Law Students and Lawyers Given the opportunity, do African Americans with lower undergraduate test scores and grades succeed in law school? Does admitting African Americans with lower test scores and grades than other racial groups into law schools have a good or bad effect on American society? On one hand it can be argued these students grab the opportunity and use it. Making more African American lawyers is healthy for American society. The presence of more African American lawyers itself means the concerns of their community will be heard and represented in society. Seeing successful African American lawyers will prove to frustrated African American high school students that this really is the land of opportunity in which success is available to those who work hard. On the other hand it can be argued poorly qualified undergraduates drop out of law school or just learn just enough to pass the bar examinations after several tries. This process has a very bad effect on society. By giving prefere nce to less qualified African American students the result is lawyers of poor quality. Poor quality workers produce poor quality work, which in the long run is not good for society. People point to the 1980’s as an example where poor quality American automobiles were rejected by buyers who turned to higher quality Japanese cars. The article â€Å"The Scandal of the Law Schools† by Stephan Thernstrom in the December 1997 issue of Commentary presents both sides of this debate. This article takes information from a study by Linda Wightman favoring preferences and uses it to make the author’s points against preferences. Although this article clearly opposes racial preferences, it does include enough of Linda Wightman’s arguments that a reader is left at the end to make up his/her mind of what the truth is or what needs further study. Commentary is a magazine published by the American Jewish Association and has an objective of trying to unify by publishing a variety of articles of different views. The American Jewish intellectual community has the reputation of being liberal, but this magazine has a history of being conservative. As a historically oppressed minority itself, the American Civil Rights Movement and Dr.

An Analysis Of Buried Child :: essays research papers

It’s amazing what a secret can do to a person. Keeping secrets among friends can be fun, or helpful when you need to confide in someone you trust. Other secrets can do more harm than good. They can fester inside you and cause endless pain. In “Buried Child,'; this is the case. The family is permanently altered by their secret, which becomes a growing moral cancer to them, leaving each impotent in their own way. The play takes place on Dodge’s farm. About thirty years ago, the farm was fertile and prosperous. Dodge and Halie didn’t have a wonderful marriage, however. Things took a turn for the worse when Halie became pregnant with someone else. It is suggested that Tilden is the father. The evidence to support this includes the fact that the baby was small, and that Tilden would sing to it and take it for long walks all day, just talking to it and treating it as his own. “Tilden was the one who knew. Better than any of us. He’d walk for miles with that kid in his arms. Halie let him take it. All night sometimes.'; (p. 124) Dodge would not allow this abomination to grow up and live in his family, so he drowned it, and buried it in the backyard. We can guess that this is when the farm ceased to be fertile, and fell into disuse. This is a symbol of the death of honesty and the birth of the family’s terrible secret. Why exactly does everything go wrong for this family? We don’t know exactly when the problems started, but we know that Ansel died on his honeymoon, Bradley cut off his own leg in a chain saw accident and is now mentally imbalanced, Tilden is nonfunctional and has been driven out of New Mexico, Dodge is a crazy old sick guy, and Halie is doing shady things with the preacher. Vince is the only person capable of facing the world and life, but he too is corrupted by the secret at the end. The answer to the question is that their secret, the dead child, is a secret festering them from the inside out. It is unclear how long this moral degradation took, it may have taken years for all this to happen. We do know that it has left everyone impotent. Bradley is the most vivid example of this impotence. His false leg is his crutch, both figuratively and literally.

Ch 18

Chapter 18 Ethers & Epoxides; Thiols and Sulfides Assigned Reading from McMurry: Read Sections 18. 1 through 18. 9; not responsible for â€Å"Focus on †¦ Epoxy Resins & Adhesives, pp. 697-698). Recommended Problems from McMurry: 18. 1a-e;18. 18. 2;18. 3a-d; 18. 4; 18. 5a-d; 18. 6a-b; 18. 7a-b; 18. 8; 18. 9; 18. 10; 18. 11; 18. 12a,b; 18. 13a,b; 18. 14a-c; 18. 16a-f; 18. 17; 18. 18; 18. 19a-c; 18. 20; 18. 21; 18. 22; 18. 23a-e; 18. 24a-I; 18. 25a-f; 18. 26a-d; 18. 27; 18. 28; 18. 29ad; 18. 30a-e; 18. 31; 18. 32; 18. 33; 18. 34; 18. 35a-d; 18. 36; 18. 37; 18. 38; 18. 39; 18. 40a,b; 18. 41a-d; 18. 2; 18. 43; 18. 44; 18. 45; 18. 45; 18. 46; 18. 47; 18. 48; 18. 49; 18. 51; 18. 52; 18. 53; 18. 54; 18. 551-e; 18. 56; 18. 57; 18. 58a-b; 18. 59a-b; 18. 60; 18. 61. 18. 1 Names and Properties of Ethers Method A: Simple ethers; alphabetize if two organic substituents. CH3–CH2–O–CH2–CH3 Diethyl ether Methyl propyl ether O CH3–CH2–CH2–O œCH3 CH3 Methyl phenyl ether SP 18. 01 Provide systematic names for the following ethers. CH3–CH2–O–CH2–CH2–CH2–CH3 O SP 18. 02 Provide structures for the following systematic names. Systematic name: Isopropyl phenyl ether Systematic name: Cyclohexyl ethyl etherMethod B: Other functional groups present, ether component is an â€Å"alkoxy† substituent. Alkoxy examples: methoxy -OCH3, ethoxy -OCH2CH3, propoxy -OCH2CH2CH3, etc. O C H3 O CH3 O C H3 para-Dimethoxybenzene 3-Methoxy-1-cyclopentene SP 18. 03 Provide systematic names for the following complex ethers. OCH3 O CH2CH3 Cl SP 18. 04 Provide structures for the following systematic names. Systematic name: meta-Bromopropoxybenzene Systematic name: 1-Isopropoxycyclopentene 18. 2 Synthesis of Ethers The Williamson Ether Synthesis R + O an alkoxide C X R SN2 an alkyl halide methyl & 1o best; X = Cl, Br, I, OTos O C ether productExample: O Na + Sodium phenoxide CH3 Br O CH3 Phenyl methyl e ther (anisole) + Na Br + X SP 18. 05 Complete the following reactions. CH3 CH3 C O Na + CH3 I + Na I CH3 CH3 CH3 C CH3 I + Na O CH3 + Na I SP 18. 06 Provide the suitable alkoxide and alkyl halide necessary to produce 2-ethoxy-2-methyl butane in good yield. CH3 CH3 CH2 C O CH3 CH2 CH3 + Na Br 8. 4 Oxymercuration Intermediates †¢ For laboratory-scale hydration of an alkene †¢ †¢ Use mercuric acetate in THF followed by sodium borohydride Markovnikov orientation – via mercurinium ion Alkoxymercuration of Alkenes General Reaction: R C C 2) NaBH4 H C R EtherAlkene RO Step #1 RO C 1) Hg(OAc)2, ROH H g OA c C C Step #2 R + HOAc Markovnikov addition SP 18. 07 Complete the following reactions by displaying the final major organic product. H C 1) Hg(OAc)2, CH3OH H C 2) NaBH4 H CH3 CH3 C C H CH3 1) Hg(OAc)2, CH3OH 2) NaBH4 SP 18. 08 Specify the alkene and alcohol needed to produce the following ether. Alcohol OCH2CH3 1) Hg(OAc)2, CH3 2) NaBH4 Alkene 18. 3 Reactions of Ethe rs: Acidic Ether Cleavage General Reaction: HX C O C C OH + X C (strong acid) Ether Alcohol Alkyl halide SP 18. 09 Predict the product for the following ether-cleavage reaction. CH3 CH3 C O CH3 HBr CH2CH3 8. 4 Reactions of Ethers: Claisen Rearrangement O OH 1,3 O to C shift Thermodynamically more stable o 250 Allyl phenyl ether C9H10O ortho-Allyl phenol C9H10O Mechanism (involves six-membered transition state): 1 O TS 2 3 1 O 2 H keto-enol tautomerization 3 O H SP 18. 10 Predict the structure for the following Claisen rearrangement. O o 250 2-Butenyl phenyl ether C10H12O 18. 5 Cyclic Ethers: Epoxides (2 methods) General Reaction 1: O C C + R Alkene C O O O O C H A peracid C An epoxide R C O A carboxylic acid Specific Example 1: O Cl C O O H m-CPBA o H O O + CH2Cl2, 25 C H 1,2-Epoxycycloheptane Cl H C O H 18. Cyclic Ethers: Epoxides (2 methods) General Reaction 2: C OH X2, H2O C C C X A halohydrin Alkene O NaOH H2O C + H2O + NaX C An epoxide Review Section 7. 3 Specific Example 2: H CH3 C C H CH3 cis-2-Butene Br2 H2O H CH3 Br C OH C H CH3 NaOH H2O O HC CH3 C H + H2O + NaBr CH3 meso-2,3-Dimethyl-oxirane (or cis-2,3-epoxybutane) SP 18. 11 Fill in the appropriate intermediates showing the correct stereochemistry. H CH3 C C CH3 Br2 NaOH H H2O H2O trans-2-Butene + H2O + NaBr 18. 6 Reactions of Epoxides: Ring-Opening General epoxide structure: O C Since each atom is sp3 there is considerable angle strain in the epoxide ring-system.C Acidic Conditions: Epoxide opening under acidic conditions (aqueous acid) yields 1,2-diols General Reaction: H H O O C H C HO C H2O An epoxide C OH A 1,2-diol (glycol) H O C H C + O H H O C + C H O H H O H Specific Example (using symmetrical epoxide): H + H H3O OH H2O OH O H H trans-1,2-Cyclohexanediol SP 18. 12 Predict the correct structure of the product diol showing the correct stereochemistry. O H CH3 C C CH3 H trans-2,3-epoxybutane H3O+ H2O Note: Epoxide opening under anhydrous acidic conditions yields halohydrins. Specific Example ( 2 ° and 1 ° carbons): o 1 carbon o 2 carbon O CH3 H C C H H 1,2-EpoxypropaneOH HCl Et2O CH3 C Cl CH2 Cl + CH3 H 1-Chloro-2-propanol (90%) C CH2 OH H 2-Chloro-1-propanol (10%) SP 18. 13 Using the above model predict the major halohydrin. O H C H C HCl H Et2O O H C C H H HCl OH C Et2O H Cl CH2 Cl + C CH2 OH H Explanation: In cases where a 2 ° carbon and a 1 ° carbon form the epoxide ring, the major halohydrin product will be the one where the incipient alcohol is 2 ° and the halide is 1 °. Upon protonation of the epoxide oxygen the halide ion simple attacks the less-hindered 1 ° carbon with a greater frequency to give the major regioisomer. Specific Example (3 ° and 1 ° carbons): SP 18. 4 Using the above model predict the major halohydrin. Circle one. O C C H H HCl OH C Et2O + C H Cl Cl H C OH C H H Explanation: In cases where a 3 ° carbon and a 1 ° carbon form the epoxide ring, the major halohydrin product will be the one where the incipient alcohol is 1 ° and the halide is 3 °. Upon protonation of the epoxide oxygen the halogen attacks the more-stabilized (same as moresubstituted) carbon atom to give the major regioisomer described. Basic Conditions: Note: Nucleophile will always attack least-hindered position. Specific Example: o 3 carbon 1o carbon O CH3 CH3 C C H H OH NaOH H2O, ? CH3 C CH2 OH CH3 -Methyl-1,2-propanediol SP 18. 15 Predict the structure of the 1,2-diol from the following reaction. O C C H H NaOH H2O, ? Reaction with Grignard Reagents: O CH3 CH3 C C H H OH 1) CH3CH2MgBr, Et2O 2) (aq) NH4Cl CH3 C CH2 CH3 CH2 CH3 SP 18. 16 Predict the structure of the organic product from the following Grignardepoxide reaction. O H C C H H 1) CH3MgBr, Et2O 2) (aq) NH4Cl Reaction with a 1 ° amine: O H C OH CH2 H H2NCH2CH2CH3 C CH2 N CH2 CH2 H Reaction with a 2 ° amine: O H C OH H H3C CH2 + N H3C H C CH2 N CH3 CH3 CH3 SP 18. 17 Predict the structure of the epoxide and amine needed to generate the amino alcohol shown to the right.OH + C H3 C CH3 Epoxide Amine CH2 N H 18. 7 Crown Ethers †¢ Large rings consisting of repeating (-OCH2CH2-) or similar units †¢ Named as x-crown-y – x is the total number of atoms in the ring – y is the number of oxygen atoms – 18-crown-6 ether: 18-membered ring containing 6 oxygen atoms †¢ Central cavity is electronegative and attracts cations 18. 8 Thiols and Sulfides †¢ Thiols (RSH), are sulfur analogues of alcohols – Named with the suffix -thiol – SH group is called â€Å"mercapto group† (â€Å"capturer of mercury†) Thiols: Formation and Reaction †¢ From alkyl halides by displacement with a sulfur nucleophile such as –SH The alkylthiol product can undergo further reaction with the alkyl halide to give a symmetrical sulfide, giving a poorer yield of the thiol Sulfides †¢ Sulfides (RSR? ), are sulfur analogues of ethers – Named by rules used for ethers, with sulfide in place of ether for simple c ompounds and alkylthio in place of alkoxy Using Thiourea to Form Alkylthiols †¢ Thiols can undergo further reaction with the alkyl halide to give dialkyl sulfides †¢ For a pure alkylthiol use thiourea (NH2(C=S)NH2) as the nucleophile †¢ This gives an intermediate alkylisothiourea salt, which is hydrolyzed cleanly to the alkyl thiourea Oxidation of Thiols to Disulfides Reaction of an alkyl thiol (RSH) with bromine or iodine gives a disulfide (RSSR) †¢ The thiol is oxidized in the process and the halogen is reduced Sulfides †¢ Thiolates (RS? ) are formed by the reaction of a thiol with a base †¢ Thiolates react with primary or secondary alkyl halide to give sulfides (RSR’) †¢ Thiolates are excellent nucleophiles and react with many electrophiles Sulfides as Nucleophiles †¢ Sulfur compounds are more nucleophilic than their oxygen-compound analogues – 3p valence electrons (on S) are less tightly held than 2p electrons (on O) †¢ Sulfides react with primary alkyl halides (SN2) to give rialkylsulfonium salts (R3S+) Oxidation of Sulfides †¢ Sulfides are easily oxidized with H2O2 to the sulfoxide (R2SO) †¢ Oxidation of a sulfoxide with a peroxyacid yields a sulfone (R2SO2) †¢ Dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) is often used as a polar aprotic solvent 18. 9 Spectroscopy of Ethers †¢ Infrared: C–O single-bond stretching 1050 to 1150 cm? 1 overlaps many other absorptions. †¢ Proton NMR: H on a C next to ether O is shifted downfield to ? 3. 4 to ? 4. 5 – The 1H NMR spectrum of dipropyl ether shows this signal at ? 3. 4 – In epoxides, these H’s absorb at ? 2. 5 to ? 3. 5 in their 1H NMR spectra Carbon NMR: C’s in ethers exhibit a downfield shift to ? 50 to ? 80 Let’s Work a Problem When 2-methyl-2,5-pentanediol is treated with sulfuric acid, dehydration occurs and 2,2dimethyltetrahydrofuran is formed. Suggest a mechanism for this reaction. Which of the two ox ygen atoms is most likely to be eliminated and why? Answer First, there is protonation of the 3? –OH group, then a 3? carbocation is formed via loss of H2O. Then there is a nucleophilic attack of the carbocation by the 2nd –OH group. The 3? OH group is the one eliminated in all likelihood because its removal involves the formation of the more stable 3? carbocation.